Unit

1 Conventions Across
Academic Disciplines

Overview

It is important that, as graduate students, you have an overall understanding of the

writing practices employed in different academic disciplines, and the many approaches
to research that they use. This unit presents you with a general understanding of the
different research and writing traditions.

Unit 1 Learning Objectives

At the end of this unit you will be able to:

• Distinguish between writing conventions used within the fields of the Social Science,
Natural Science and Business
• Identify major research practices used within the fields of the Social Science, Natural
Science and Business

This unit will comprise one session:

Session 1.1: Writing and Research Conventions

LG600 Advanced Academic English Language Skills for Graduate Students 43

44 LG600 Advanced Academic English Language Skills for Graduate Students
Session 1.1
Writing and Research Conventions

Introduction
Have you ever wondered what it is that distinguishes the writing in one academic
discipline from the types of writing in other academic disciplines? Do you attribute it
to levels of difficulty? Do you think it relates to the types of terminology required? Or
do you ascribe it to the varying levels of technicality? Well, if you do, your assumptions
are not entirely unfounded. These inferences, however, do not reflect fully the nature
of the differences that exist in the approaches to writing across academic programmes
and disciplines. Disciplines differ from each other in their writing practices in terms of
vocabularies, writing conventions, styles, genres, criteria for judgment, uses for texts and
rhetorical purpose. This is so because each discipline has methods and procedures that
have been established by that specific academic community. If you were to do a simple
investigation for example, into the types of writing and research assignments being done
by MA students across three major faculties in your university, and different programmes
within those faculties, you would find significant differences in the research methods used,
the requirements for discussing results and the purpose of the studies conducted. This is
because they are required to follow conventions that have been established to reflect the
specific peculiarities of research and writing within that specific discipline.

Academic Discourse Communities

The discussion above hints at some of the key differences that exist in academic writing
found across different disciplines. Academic writing, however, regardless of the discipline,
is aimed at addressing particular academic discourse communities. An academic discourse
community is a group of members belonging to a specific discipline who share common
goals or interests and who adopt certain preferred ways of participating in academic
discussions. These preferred ways of discussion are called discursive practices. Generally,
discursive practices involve various genres (academic papers, journals, books, lectures and
debates) and require the mastery of special and specific terminology or jargon. Members
of these communities, therefore, employ technical terms with each other as they ‘practise’
their ‘trade’. According to Zemliansky (2008), academic and professional readers and
writers function within these groups because “Writing and reading are interactive, social
processes. Ideas presented in written texts are born as a result of long and intense dialogue
between authors and others interested in the same topic or issue….” The common interests
that bind such communities together stem from the ways in which these individuals have
been cultured and schooled. Their view of the world differs from others who belong to
different communities and whose interest form part of a separate discipline. As graduate
student writers, you will also be inducted into an academic community as you engage the

LG600 Advanced Academic English Language Skills for Graduate Students 45

 materials that will shape your own approach to writing. You will be expected to produce
research papers that conform to the conventions and styles used within your respective
disciplines and you will begin to employ specialized language in addressing targeted
audiences. As graduate students, and more specifically, as students within the M.A. English
Language programme it may be very probable that you will be called upon to teach others
from different disciplines the scholarship of writing. It is with this in mind that this unit
introduces you to the varying styles and approaches used across the curriculum.

Writing Approaches within the Social Sciences

The social sciences have as their goal the systematic study of human behaviour and human
societies (Hult 2006). Work in the social sciences therefore revolves around making sense
of the human elements of our world. In the fields within the social sciences, researchers
focus on the ways that people behave. Social scientists follow the principles used in
general scientific study, which means that they engage in the systematic and objective
study of phenomena in which they have an interest.

It would of course be problematic to try to completely isolate the social sciences from
other academic disciplines in terms of the approaches taken. Some of the research
methodologies developed in the social sciences are also employed in other disciplines.
For example, Linguists and Historians often talk about conducting “field research” which
is one of the pillars of social science research. In spite of these similarities, however, there
are some distinct differences between the disciplines in their approaches to writing.

Evidence and Methods

As mentioned above, it is usually the aim of the social scientist to define behaviour
and to discover its tendencies and its possibilities. These aims shape the ways in which
social scientists collect and report on their data. In particular, the data and evidence used
by social scientists are quantitative, that is based on statistics, or qualitative, based on
observation. This infers that social scientists must construct a method of acquiring the
necessary evidence. They do this by means of the following:

Figure 2.1: Social Scientists’ Method for Evidence Acquisition

46 LG600 Advanced Academic English Language Skills for Graduate Students

After the method is constructed, social scientists begin by observing, processing and
recording carefully the phenomenon under investigation. When the research process is
over and social scientists are ready to report their findings there is a formal and relatively
fixed format they follow.

The Layout
Social Scientists are never in a quandary as to the format for structuring and presenting
their findings. While reports of findings are expressed using varying formats (summaries,
critiques, articles and theses) and students may have to also write proposals before they
can go into the field to investigate, there are set guidelines. A detailed outline of a research
paper follows:

1. First is the abstract.

An abstract is a statement which, in a very restricted word limit, summarizes for the
reader the purpose of the study, its methods, and its results.

2. Following the abstract is the introduction.

In the Introduction the writer:
• Defines the problem that is to be explored
• Reviews the literature on this problem
• Notes the gaps in the literature
• Tells how the study intends to address these gaps

3. After the introduction, the writer describes the method(s) used.

In describing the(se) method(s) the writer states how the analysis was done.

4. After the methods have been clearly and thoroughly described, the writer declares
the results.

These results need to be presented objectively and without rhetoric.

5. After the results are declared, the writer must then discuss the results.
In this section, the results are interpreted. Relevant connections or distinctions
between the findings and the findings of others are made. In short, an argument is
presented to the reader concerning what these results can and cannot tell about the
problem at hand.

6. Conclusion
The writer summarises briefly the results and their implication.

7. Reference Page(s)
The reference page(s) and its/their citations must conform to one suitable style
appropriate for the social sciences. Two of these include American Psychological
Association (APA), or the American Sociological Association (ASA). Usually, the
lecturer, journal or university stipulates the style required.

8. Appendices
Appendices appear at the end of the paper. They help answer questions raised in

LG600 Advanced Academic English Language Skills for Graduate Students 47

 the body of the essay or text. Often scholars prefer to place maps, charts, tables,
and so on at the end of the paper rather than inserting them in the text. If multiple
appendices are included, they should be labelled each with a letter (e.g. “Appendix
A,” “Appendix B,” and so on).

Style of Writing
As outlined in module one of this course, academic writing, regardless of the discipline,
should be clear, concise and coherent. This by no means infers that any measure of good
writing will suffice for papers within a particular discipline. In the social sciences, for
example, short paragraphs are preferred to longer ones; passive voice is favoured over
active voice and language use must be well crafted but not ‘flowery’. Students are strictly
advised that their readers should never feel that they are relying more on rhetoric than
on evidence. Paragraphs, though well crafted and coherent, must never belabour the
point; digressing to interesting but not immediately relevant observations is strongly
discouraged.

This style of writing is preferred to others because social scientists strive to achieve a level
of objectivity when reporting their findings. Let us consider an example juxtaposing the
use of an active versus passive construction in the reporting of a particular finding.

I observed no significant decrease in the number of persons who preferred peaceful solutions…

No significant decrease in the number of persons who preferred peaceful solutions… was
observed.

In the second example, the passive construction appears more objective and impersonal.
Achieving this objective and impersonal stance is extremely important for social scientists
who, because of the very nature of their discipline, need to distance themselves from the
very subjective “I”.

For a detailed discussion on writing within the Social Sciences see: Hansen, Kristine
(2006). Writing in the Social Sciences: A Rhetoric with Readings London: Pearson; 2nd
edition

Writing Approaches within the Natural Sciences

The Natural Sciences are those branches of science (astronomy, biology, chemistry, the
earth sciences and physics) that seek to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world
through scientific (empirical and measurable) methods. The Natural Sciences differ from
the Social Sciences, which as previously discussed, refer to the study of human behaviour
and social patterns.

Writing in the Natural Sciences means writing about the natural aspects of our world.
Theories are tested in an attempt to solve problems, inform the reader of new discoveries
and assist him/her in clarifying the truth using new facts or perspectives. Most scientific
writing can be divided into four categories namely: scientific papers, grant proposals,
review articles, and posters. Each of these types of writing serves a different purpose.

48 LG600 Advanced Academic English Language Skills for Graduate Students

Scientific papers serve as a detailed account of a research project. A grant proposal provides
a summary of proposed research and is generally sent to a funding agency with the hope
of attracting financial support.  Review articles provide an overview of current advances
in a particular scientific field and posters allow researchers to present their research to
large audiences in a short amount of time.

The general aim of a scientific paper is to provide the community (either scientific or public)
with a detailed understanding of the various steps involved in the particular research.
These ‘steps’ do not only include the specific steps that were taken while the research was
being conducted but also the background information, hypotheses and results. Similar
to the discipline of the social sciences, natural sciences have very clear guidelines that
outline what should and should not be included in each of the four categories of scientific
writing.

Key Components of the Natural Sciences Paper

The technical nature of the discipline dictates that specific steps be adhered to if papers are
to be successfully written. In building the frame of the essay seven core elements must be
incorporated. These elements are:

• Stating the problem to be addressed in an objective fashion;

• Gathering unbiased and relevant information;
• Analysing the gathered information;
• Formulating an hypothesis;
• Experimenting to prove the hypothesis;
• Analysing the journal notes; and
• Arriving at the conclusion, which may or may not prove the original hypothesis.

Once consideration is given to these, the outer elements are then added to complete the
layout.

The Layout
1. Title 
The title of the Natural Sciences paper is very important. It should be concise and
clearly describe what the paper is about. A choice may be made to introduce what was
tested so, from the onset, readers will know if this is the paper they want to read.

2. Abstract
This is a brief description of the paper. The main ideas are summarized in 250 words
or less. Anything useful contained in the paper must be mentioned in these 250
words. Abstracts help research scientists to ‘weed’ through papers to find information
pertinent to their specific interest.

3. Introduction
The paper should begin by introducing and forming a question. The introduction
should include relevant theories and equations used in the experiment. If other
scientists have conducted similar experiments, recognition should be given to these
predecessors of the work. Any hypotheses formed should be stated here. A brief

LG600 Advanced Academic English Language Skills for Graduate Students 49

 description of the experiments conducted should be outlined in the introduction also,
saving the intimate details of the experiments for the body of the paper.

4. Thesis Statement
The thesis statement of a scientific paper is a clear and concise statement of the topic
of study. It is sometimes included in the introduction.

5. Body
The body of the paper includes the following:

Experimental
This section contains all of the reagents used in the experiment, most likely accompanied
by any hazard warnings they might carry. If the experiment is to be reproduced, then
others need to know exactly what is involved. Also described here, should be all of the
equipment used in the data collection process, including specific equipment names
and numbers.

Procedure
This section contains the steps taken during the experiment. If a procedure was
previously used and recorded elsewhere, it can be referenced here freely to save time
and space for data. If a self-written procedure is being used, every step should be
meticulously written down so that the experiment could be repeated in exactly the
same way by a different team of scientists.

Results
All of the numerical data generated during the experiment is recorded here including
tables, graphs, and numbers that are pertinent to the conclusions. No conclusions
should be drawn here.

6. Conclusion 
The conclusion should focus on the data presented and analysed. The results should
also be shared and discussed here. The writer has the choice of expressing an opinion
on what the results mean, but should be careful to avoid linking the findings with
other, unexplored subject matter. If a topic or issue is not covered in the introduction
or experiment, then it must be left out of the conclusion.

7. Acknowledgments 
Sometimes, but often not, this section is included. It is needed in cases where a
service was employed to run spectra or analysis for the experiment, or when someone
offered help by lending some part of their apparatus made for a different experiment.
Acknowledgment sections are very appropriate and recommended for academic
writing, as all equipment utilized usually belong to the university. Some scientific
service providers require a specific form of words in the acknowledgment as part of
their regulations. These will be provided along with the results of your submitted
sample.

8. References Cited Page 

Follow the specific documentation style chosen or required. If citing, for example, a
huge reference book of analytical and preparatory chemistry, give the page or chapter
number so the reader stands a chance of finding the text used. It is a good idea to make

50 LG600 Advanced Academic English Language Skills for Graduate Students

 sure to cite any important references already cited in the laboratory instructions and
add some more to show that the work has credence beyond the assignment brief.

9. Appendix
This section is reserved for calculations and notes that were made during the actual
experimentation process. Hand written notes and other jottings are placed here
because it is required to present them to prove that you did observe what was claimed
in the paper. This section usually contains a photocopy of the laboratory notebook
page, or pages, that contain data and comments relevant to the paper.

Style of Writing
Since the goal of the scientific paper is to present facts supported by evidence, there are
general rules to follow in the paper. The nature and subject matter of the ideas in the
paper must be presented in a factual style, omitting figurative or emotional language.
Adjectives and adverbs (being descriptive) should be avoided focusing instead on the
nouns (the focus of the paper) and the verbs (how it acted). Sentences should be structured
so that they are clear and easy to understand and the paper should be written in the past
tense. The intended audience should always be considered when using technical jargon,
acronyms and abbreviations so that their usage should be limited to familiar items. The
overuse of unfamiliar jargon should be avoided and outdated sources should only be
used for comparisons.

There are basic tips to keep in mind while writing your scientific paper.

Figure 2.2: Basic Tips for writing Scientific Papers

For a detailed discussion on writing within the natural sciences see: Robert A. Day, How
to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper 5 ed. Phoenix: Oryx Press; 1998.

Go to the following link for some practice in writing in the Sciences:

http://fauxpress.com/kimball/w/6.html

http://www.writing.engr.psu.edu/exercises/

LG600 Advanced Academic English Language Skills for Graduate Students 51

 Writing Approaches within Business
Preparing for the world of work after you have graduated requires that you apply for
a job. To do this you will be expected to at least prepare your resume and write a cover
letter. When you are successfully hired, your organization may expect you to write letters,
reports, emails, memos and so on. This writing differs in some aspects from the writing
you would have done while you were enrolled in your specific programme of study, but
written communication is equally important in the work environment as it is within the
world of academia.

Effective writing for business is carefully planned, thoroughly researched and clearly
presented. Its purpose is always to accomplish a specific goal and be as persuasive as
possible when you either convey information to someone or request information from
someone. Effective writing for business must therefore be complete, concise, and accurate.
Your text should be written in such a way that the reader will be able to easily understand
what you are telling or asking them.

Keys to Effective Writing

Whether you are writing an email to your colleague, an instruction manual for registration
of new students or a sales proposal, there are certain key questions you must ask yourself
before you begin the task.

1. Who will read what I write? (Identify your audience)

2. Why should they read what I write? (Establish your purpose)
3. What do I have to say to them? (Formulate your message)
4. How can I best communicate? (Select your style and tone)

Identifying your audience

You have already been exposed to some of the keys that will open the doors to effective
writing in Session 2.1 of Module 1. A review of some of these aspects will link their
pertinence to the genre of writing for business.

As a writer, knowing who makes up your audience is one of your most important
responsibilities. This is so because members of specific audiences may differ in
backgrounds, experiences, needs and opinions. Knowing these things will therefore help
you the writer to determine what you can say to your audience. Additionally, once you
identify your audience it is useful to adopt their perspective on the matter as this will help
you to focus and select the most relevant details for that audience.

1. You may want to ask yourself even before you begin the writing process:
2. What individual(s) will most likely be reading my work?
3. How many people will make up my audience?
4. How well does my audience understand the language/variety of language that I am
writing?
5. How much does my audience already know about my writing topic?
6. What is my audience’s reason for reading my work?

52 LG600 Advanced Academic English Language Skills for Graduate Students

7. What are my audience’s expectations about my written work?
8. What is my audience’s attitude toward me and my work?
9. What do I want my audience to do after reading my work?

Establishing Your Purpose

An understanding of why you are writing will help you to communicate better with
your reader and may even help to simplify the process of writing. To do this you must
gain an understanding of the reader’s needs and your goal in communicating. Once this
is established you can begin to write but note, it is imperative here to follow the most
important rule in occupational (business) writing: Get to the point straight away. At the
start of your message, state your goal clearly.

Formulating Your Message

Your message is the sum of what facts, responses and recommendations you put into
writing. A message includes the details and scope of your communication.

1. Details are those key points you think readers need to know to perform their jobs
2. Scope refers to how much information you give readers about those key details.

ALWAYS ADAPT YOUR MESSAGE TO SUIT YOUR AUDIENCE.

Selecting Your Style and Tone

Style
In session 2.2 of Module 1 you were introduced to the concepts of style and tone. You
learned there that style refers to how something is written rather than what is written and
that style helps to determine how well you can communicate with an audience, how well
your readers understand and receive your message. As such, you also learned that style
involves the choices you make about

• the construction of your paragraphs

• the length and patterns of your sentences
• your choice of words

As the writer, you will need to adapt your style as is necessary to take into account

• different messages
• different purposes
• different audiences

Tone
In that same session (2.2 Module 1) you also learned that tone expresses your attitude
toward a topic and toward your audience. You observed that tone could range from formal

LG600 Advanced Academic English Language Skills for Graduate Students 53

 to impersonal (a scientific report) and from informal to personal (e-mail to a friend or a
how-to article for students). You were told that like style, tone is indicated in part by the
words you choose. For example saying someone “has a keen interest in details” conveys a
more positive tone than saying the person is a “pedant”.

The tone of your writing is especially important in business writing because it reflects
the image you project to your readers and thus determines how they will respond to
you, your work and your company. Depending on your tone you can appear sincere and
intelligent or angry and uninformed. Of course, in all your written work you are required
to sound professional and knowledgeable about the topic and genuinely interested in
your reader’s opinions or problems.

Characteristics of Business (Job- Related) Writing

Job-related writing characteristically serves six basic functions -

1. to provide practical information;

2. to give facts rather than impressions;
3. to provide visuals to clarify and condense information;
4. to give accurate measurements;
5. to state responsibilities precisely;
6. to persuade and offer recommendations.

These six functions tell you what kind of writing you will produce after you successfully
answer the who? why? what? and how? as outlined above under keys to effective writing.

Getting Down to Writing- Tips to Know

Business writings follow very specific formulas in their structure, for example, how you
write and focus your style and tone for an email will not be the same as that chosen for a
letter written to your boss requesting a leave of absence.

Additionally, business writings often follow specific expectations.

1. There is a wide range of standard phrases that are expected in business English that
are generally not used in everyday English. Some of these phrases include

Please find attached ...

We regret to inform you that ...
It has come to our attention that ...

2. In business writing because concision matters. Less is always more.

The following are some examples:

• DO NOT WRITE: The College has parking zones for different areas for people
living on campus as well as for those who do not live on campus and who commute
to school.
WRITE: The College has different parking zones for resident and commuter
students.

• DO NOT WRITE: be in agreement with

WRITE: agree

54 LG600 Advanced Academic English Language Skills for Graduate Students

 • DO NOT WRITE: absolutely essential
WRITE: essential

3. In Business writing every effort should be made to avoid the use of jargon. At times
the use of jargon is unavoidable, for example, in a business requirement document or
technical specification, but care should always be taken to use plain language.

4. Pay special attention to names, titles and genders. If you are not positive about the
spelling of someone’s name, his/her job title (and what it means), or the gender, either
a) check with someone who does know (like their assistant), or b) in the case of gender,
use gender-neutral language.

5. Replace wordy and vague phrases with concise, direct words.

6. Use passive constructions only when it is necessary.

For more tips on writing for business see: http://www.syntaxtraining.com/business_

writing_tips.html#top

ACTIVITY 1.1 •

A necessary element in business writing is being concise. The passage below consists of
70 words. Try reducing it to 35 words or less. Share your version with your classmates and
compare your responses. Post your versions to the relevant discussion forum.

This document is for the purpose of giving the reader a detailed explanation of
the inventory process. It describes the activities we currently do in the majority of
instances on a daily and weekly basis. In order to provide an introduction to the
process for employees who work on a temporary basis, we also have prepared an
overview, which describes the highlights of the inventory process in just two pages.

Now that the characteristics of business writing have been explored, let us look at an
example of business writing.

Memos
Memos, the clipped form of the Latin word memorandum, are brief in-house correspondence
sent up and down the corporate ladder. It is the type of writing you can expect to prepare
most frequently on the job. This form of business correspondence is quick, easy and an
effective way for individuals to communicate with others. It is streamlined for the busy
world of work and it provides busy readers with information quickly. Memos differ from
the business letter in that they are less formal and are often sent to individuals within the
company. As such, memos do not need the formalities necessary in business letters, such
as an inside address, salutation, complimentary close, or signature line.

LG600 Advanced Academic English Language Skills for Graduate Students 55

 While there is a standard format for writing memos, there is some variation in the way
these are transmitted and sent. Some companies use standard printed forms, while others
have their names (letter-head) printed on their memos and so on. Which method is
preferred is a matter of choice, but basically memos consist of two parts: the header or the
identifying information at the top and the message itself. The header includes: To, From,
Date and Subject lines

TO:
FROM:
DATE:
SUBJECT:

It is important to organize your memos so that readers can find information quickly and
act on it promptly. For longer memos you might want to divide the body of your memo
into three parts namely: introduction, discussion and conclusion.

Introduction
The introduction of your memo should do the following:

• Tell readers clearly about the problem, procedure, question or policy that prompted
you to write;
• Explain briefly any background information the reader needs to know;
• Be specific about what you are going to accomplish in your memo.

Discussion
In the body of your memo, help readers in these ways:

• State why a problem or procedure is important, who will be affected by it and what
caused it and why;
• Indicate why and what changes are necessary;
• Give precise dates, times, locations and costs.

Conclusion
In your conclusion, state specifically how you want the reader to respond to your memo.
To get readers to act appropriately, you can do one or more of the following:

• Ask readers to call you if they have questions;

• Request a reply – in writing, over the telephone, via email or in person – by a specific
date;
• Provide a list of recommendations that the readers are to accept, revise or reject.

Throughout your memo, organizational markers should also be used, where appropriate,
as a way of emphasis. Organizational markers include headings, numbered or bulleted
lists and underlining and/or boldfacing. You should be careful not to overuse any of
these since this will detract from the purpose of the memo.

56 LG600 Advanced Academic English Language Skills for Graduate Students

 ACTIVITY 1.2 •
After studying the Unit,
1. List a number of key features used in the writing of each discipline.
2. Draw a table and set these features down.
3. State which features are common and which are different and indicate why you think this
is so.
4. Select one type of writing project from the discipline in which your personal research is
located and one that is furthest away from it. Using the writing processes introduced to
you in Module One, write a short piece (350 words max). (Be prepared to submit this
assignment when prompted to by your group facilitator)
5. State your experience (including likes and challenges) and share this with a classmate.
Compare your experiences.

Unit Summary

This unit introduced you to the writing conventions and approaches used with the
disciplines of Natural Sciences, Social Sciences and Business. It detailed strategies for
developing and writing papers in each of the fields and provided sufficient examples to
allow for comparison between and among the disciplines.

LG600 Advanced Academic English Language Skills for Graduate Students 57

58 LG600 Advanced Academic English Language Skills for Graduate Students