Running head: DISCUSSION QUESTIONS II 1

Discussion Questions II: Historical Approaches to Psychology: Including Wundt versus

Titchener, Intelligence Testing, Structuralism versus Functionalism, Behavioral Psychology,

Gestalt Theory, Models of Mental Illness, and Psychoanalysis

Melissa H. DeLong

California Southern University

PSY87503

05/04/2020

Robin Mintzer
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS II 2

Discussion Questions II: Historical Approaches to Psychology: Including Wundt versus

Titchener, Intelligence Testing, Structuralism versus Functionalism, Behavioral Psychology,

Gestalt Theory, Models of Mental Illness, and Psychoanalysis

The great thinkers of history generally explored questions of the mind in a philosophical

context. The transformation of philosophical inquiry into psychology as an independent science

took place during the 19th century (Henley, 2019). As the science of psychology progressed,

innovative methodologies appeared, including intelligence testing, structuralism, functionalism,

behavioral psychology, gestalt theory, models of mental illness, and psychoanalysis.

Additionally, during this period, Wundt and Titchener delivered distinct approaches to

experimental psychology.

Wundt versus Titchener

Scholars generally consider Wilhelm Wundt as the father of experimental psychology

(Henley, 2019). The author credited Wundt’s student, Edward Titchener, for the creation of

structuralism. They both believed in understanding the mental components of human life through

introspection. They also agreed that the recognition and description of emotions and sensations

were critical for understanding the human experience. Additionally, the author noted that they

both used the scientific method in their respective applications. Although they exhibit some

similarities, the differences between Wundt and Titchener are apparent.

Where Wundt aimed to clarify mental experience, Titchener asserted that mental

components could be classified, and sought to describe them using a sort of periodic table for

mental elements (Henley, 2019). In addition to experiments, Wundt believed historical

examination and naturalistic observation were essential considerations that could explain social

practices, beliefs, myths, morality, literature, law, and language (Kock, 2018). Titchener’s
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approach was more rigid in that he contended scientists should only use evidence-based

approaches conducted in a laboratory to explore psychology by using introspection with a

concentration on internal processes (Araujo & Marcellos, 2017). Unlike Titchener, Wundt

considered that prior events could explain physical phenomena and believed experiments are

deficient in the research of higher psychological processes.

I lean toward Wundt’s more comprehensive approach to psychology compared to

Titchener’s austere analysis. Wundt attempts to explain human mental processes and explore

how they relate to the broader social order. Titchener’s classification system is not flexible

enough to address the more complicated human components, such as personality or abnormal

behavior (Henley, 2019). Therefore, the school of structuralism could not endure and diminished

upon Titchener’s death.

Intelligence Testing

Researchers began to use experimental psychology to explore human intelligence,

resulting in a variety of theories that lead to an ongoing nature versus nurture controversy. James

Cattell, a student of Wundt, came to understand that intelligence is connected to sensory acuity

and is primarily inherited, and he developed intelligence testing (Henley, 2019). The author

noted Alfred Binet concluded that mental orthopedics, or mental exercises, could improve

children’s motivation, concentration, and discipline in preparing for formal education, leading to

his development of the intelligence scale.

Charles Spearman, considered a pioneer in statistics, identified general intelligence or the

g-factor, which refers to the intelligence component that is primarily inherited and controls

particular intellectual abilities, which can be measured (Henley, 2019). The author indicated

Henry Goddard’s acceptance that genetics relate to intelligence and, according to Goddard,
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morons, or low-intelligence individuals, lack self-control, which can lead to a susceptibility of

adultery and criminal misconduct. Additionally, Henley (2019) noted that Lewis Terman’s

contributions included his adaptation and refinement of the Stanford-Binet intelligence test and

his extensive genetic analysis of gifted children. Finally, the author credited Robert Yerkes for

his work in intelligence testing resulting in the Army Alpha and Beta tests.

The subsequent Bell Curve theory by Herrnstein and Murray reinforces the notion that

intelligence is genetically based and, according to the theory, creates a problematic economic

class structure (Henley, 2019). The implications of the theory sparked political controversy

concerning issues of race, class, and social equality that remain today. Bell Curve theory

continues to influence the enactment of some political policies, such as Trump’s current

contentious merit-based immigration policy (Chishti & Bolter, 2019).

Structuralism versus Functionalism

The first two primary psychology schools to emerge were known as structuralism and

functionalism. As previously mentioned, Titchener is the founder of structuralism. Both schools

of thought were primarily involved with the analysis of the conscious self (Henley, 2019).

Nonetheless, scientists adhering to structuralism were critical of functionalism, and vice versa.

Structuralists characterized emotions as combinations of internal feelings, physical

stimulation, or states of mind that are distinctive but can concurrently take place (Walle & Dahl,

2020). Structuralists concentrated on deciphering mental processes into essential elements

(Henley, 2019). Scientists, like Titchener, sought to explain the central elements of

consciousness using a technique called introspection; however, critics of structuralism argued

that introspection is too subjective and, therefore, cannot be accurately measured.

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Functionalism developed as a response to structuralism. William James’ work and

Darwin’s evolutionary theory were influential components (Henley, 2019). Functionalists

wanted a more systematic and objective way of describing mental processes. Instead of focusing

on the subjective components of consciousness, functionalists concentrated on the purpose of

consciousness and behavior. Contrastingly from structuralism, functionalists believed that

emotions emerge jointly with the stimulus (Walle & Dahl, 2020).

Functionalism impacted education due to the emphasis placed on individual

characteristics and the development of learning strategies. Mary Calkins studied verbal learning

with her invention of the paired-associate technique (Henley, 2019). John Dewey believed that

adolescents should study at the pace of their developmental preparedness. The author credited

him for formally launching the school of functionalism. Other researchers like Edward

Thorndike, studied animal behavior and learning abilities, which designated the passage between

the schools of functionalism and behaviorism.

William McDougall

Behavioral psychologists are generally interested in researching and examining

observable characteristics relating to personality (Cervone & Pervin, 2016). Behaviorists like

John Watson and Ivan Pavlov considered that understanding human behavior requires an

understanding of the environmental factors that cause the behavior. Contrarily, William

McDougall contended that instinctual energy, which he claimed exists in all organisms, supplies

the catalyst for certain behaviors (Henley, 2019).

McDougall asserted that learning reinforcement occurs in the form of satisfying a need

that is based on instinct (Henley, 2019). In opposition, Watson rebuffed the whole concept of

learning reinforcement and instead explained learning in terms of associative concepts such as
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proximity, repetition, and recency. McDougall, seemingly to thrive in academic debates, openly

challenged colleagues, like Watson, for what he perceived as their mistakes, and brazenly

responded to their counter-arguments (Rose, 2016).

Like other psychologists, McDougall wanted to transform psychology from a theoretical

science into an objective one based on experimental interpretations (Rose, 2016). However,

unlike many behaviorists of the time, McDougall believed that mental events influenced

behavior and approached the analysis of them from this context (Henley, 2019). He wrote many

academic texts about his research on instinctual behavior. Many of his additional pursuits

relating to human behavior, such as the exploration of paranormal phenomena, discredited his

objectives among some of his associates. For this reason, McDougall’s purposeful theoretical

concepts relating to behavior were not as recognized in comparison to other reflexive behavioral

theories. The latter theories were influential in the rise of neobehaviorism.

Neobehaviorism

The American Psychological Association (2000) characterizes neobehaviorism as an

approach affected by logical positivism that stresses the conclusions derived from behavioral

experimentation using knowledge and mental events as analytical tools. The neobehaviorist,

known as Edwin Guthrie, used the law of contiguity to explain how learning occurs (Henley,

2019). Guthrie’s one-trial theory of learning says a person makes a full connection in the first

instance of a stimulus situation, which predicts future responses to the stimuli to be in alignment

with what previously worked.

Neobehaviorist, Clark Hull, was recognized for his studies relating to human motivation

and his drive theory of behavior (Henley, 2019). According to his theory, the deprivation of

biological needs activate drives that motivate behavior. The author noted that Hull asserted
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reinforcement of behaviors derives from the survival instinct, such as the need for food. For

example, the reduction of drives, such as when eating reduces hunger, reinforces the

corresponding behavior. Therefore, according to Hull, behavior results from an intricate

unending interplay between an individual and their environment.

Edward Tolman is a neobehaviorist known for latent learning theory, and his research

relating to cognitive maps (Henley, 2019). The author indicated that a cognitive map refers to the

mental representation of the environment. Tolman experimented with rats in a maze in which he

observed that the rats constructed a mental map of the maze that aided the choosing of a path

leading them to a reward. Tolman’s latent learning theory suggests that learning shifts to

performance when confirmation eventually takes the place of reinforcement. His concepts were

influential in the development of cognitive psychology.

Gestalt Theory

Around the same time that behaviorism was expanding in the United States, a new branch

of psychology, known as Gestalt psychology, was progressing in Germany (Henley, 2019). The

author noted that Gestalt theory relates to perception, philosophy, learning, thinking,

development, physiology, and other elements that comprise a Gestalt, which means whole in

German. Max Wertheimer’s concept of the phi phenomenon served as the foundation of Gestalt

psychology. Wertheimer described the phi phenomenon as when movement is perceived where

none exists, such as watching a rapid sequence of still frames known as movies.

Wertheimer collaborated with researchers, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler, and their

work generated broad interest in Gestalt psychology (Henley, 2019). The author identified their

concept of psychophysical isomorphism as that the patterns of mental activity cause mental

experience, which is in contradiction of behaviorism. Kohler’s belief that the whole is greater
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than the sum of the individual parts contributed to the uncovering of many different phenomena

perceived during an experience.

Gestalt researchers proposed several laws of perceptual organization, such as the laws of

similarity, Pragnanz, proximity, continuity, and closure, in order to better understand human

perception (Henley, 2019). In this way, they demonstrated that subjective motivations and

expectations profoundly influence perception. Therefore, the Gestalt approach to therapy is

phenomenological as it focuses on one’s perception of reality and existential because it centers

on the concept that individuals are continually in the process of growing, enhancing, and

rediscovering themselves (Corey, 2017). Hence, Gestalt therapy is suitable for enhancing self-

awareness, or increasing self-esteem, but can be less helpful for the treatment of acute mental

illnesses.

Models of Mental Illness

Models of mental illness are discernible as being medical, supernatural, or psychological.

The medical model approach suggests that biological break downs, usually in the brain, are

responsible for mental pathology (Henley, 2019). Genetics, injuries, tumors, ingestible toxins,

pollution, disease, stress, or developmental imbalances are all factors that can cause mental

disturbances. Boyce and Berk (2016) indicated that the biological understanding of mental

illness is essential because it allows for the advancement of rational treatments. They noted early

explorative treatments included bloodletting for the correction of imbalances, or the removal of

teeth, tonsils, or the colon if thought to be the cause of mental illness.

Sometimes supernatural forces, such as demonic possession, were thought to enter the

body and inflict mental anguish upon its victim. Magic, bloodletting, or removing sections of the

skull through a process known as trepanation were among the methods used to release evil forces
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from the body (Henley, 2019). Archaeologists found evidence of trepanation on apparently

healthy individuals dating back 7,000 years ago in places such as Ancient Greece, North and

South America, the Far East, and as recent as the early 1900s in Africa and Polynesia (Wylie,

2016). The amount of healing around the edges of the trepanation holes indicated that some died

during the procedure, and others survived for several years.

Explanations involving the psychological model denote abnormal behaviors as the cause

for mental illness, although many believe they exist simultaneously with biological factors

(Henley, 2019). The author noted psychotherapy as an early psychological treatment that

addressed fear, anxiety, frustration, guilt, and conflict. The goal of treatment was to help the

individual reach a state of catharsis, or the purging and relief of disturbing or repressed emotions,

in order to help them change their ways.

Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud allocated his career to formulating and growing his theory of

psychoanalysis (Corey, 2017). Freud believed that if an individual can release repressed or

unconscious emotions and experiences through psychotherapy, then they could attain healing by

way of catharsis (Henley, 2019). Many of Freud’s followers departed from many of his

conclusions and expanded on the original concept of psychoanalysis in independent ways.

Anna Freud, daughter of Sigmund Freud, followed in her father’s footsteps and founded

child psychoanalysis (Henley, 2019). The author explained that although A. Freud validated her

father’s phallic and genital stages of development in her approach, she emphasized the ego

functions and defense mechanisms in child analysis due to the display of developmental

experiences as they occur in children compared to adults. Notably, the author indicated that Eric

Erikson later formulated a lifespan model of development based on her concepts.

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Carl Jung was a student of S. Freud and developed analytical psychology based on

history, mythology, anthropology, and religion (Corey, 2017). Henley (2019) indicated that Jung

believed all people have an innate tendency to become self-actualized, which refers to unity and

wholeness of the total personality. Carl Rogers’ self-actualization theory of personality echoes

Jung’s concept of self-actualization (Cervone & Pervin, 2016). Henley (2019) noted that Jung

also distinguished between the attitudes of introversion and extroversion, which remain a factor

of every personality measure in modern psychology.

S. Freud’s follower and colleague, Alfred Adler, broke away from psychoanalysis. He

believed that infant helplessness derives from feelings of inferiority that occur at the onset of

human life (Henley, 2019). Hence, people are driven throughout their lives to adopt a lifestyle

that helps them overcome feelings of inferiority. Adler was a pioneer in advocating for the

prevention and intervention of social circumstances, which were antagonistic to social interest

and resulted in human problems (Corey, 2017).

Henley (2019) recognized that Karen Horney was trained as a psychoanalyst, but felt

there was too much emphasis placed on unconscious sexual motivation. According to Horney,

mental illness results from social conditions and interpersonal relationships, especially that of

parent and child. She extended this concept to explain that women’s inferiority to men was a

product of societal norms, as opposed to biology, a notion that remains prevalent today.

Conclusion

As psychology advanced as a science, many resourceful approaches emerged.

Researchers such as James, Wundt, and Titchener brought about structuralism and functionalism

(Henley, 2019). Strides occurred in the fields of intelligence testing and behaviorism.

Psychology progressed in Germany with the introduction of Gestalt theory, and models of mental
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS II 11

illness began to take shape. S. Freud’s emphasis on the concept of unconscious sexual motivation

in psychoanalysis provoked other psychoanalysts to break away and form independent schools of

thought (Corey, 2017). However, his insights into the workings of the mind are undeniable and

of lasting value resulting in the adaptation of psychoanalytical concepts among many

contemporary psychological traditions (Cervone & Pervin, 2016).

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS II 12

References

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development. History of Psychology, 20(2), 148–171. https://doi-

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Boyce, P. M., & Berk, M. (2016). Biological models of mental illness: Implications for therapy

development. Medical Journal of Australia, 204(9), 339-340.

Cervone, D., & Pervin, L. A. (2016). Personality: Theory and research (13th ed.). Hoboken, NJ:

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Chishti, M., & Bolter, J. (2019). “Merit-based” immigration: Trump proposal would dramatically

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https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/merit-based-immigration-trump-proposal-

immigrant-selection

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Kock, L. (2018). On making sense. An exploration of Wundt’s apperceptionist account of

meaningful speech. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 54(4), 272–292.

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Rose, A. C. (2016). William Mcdougall, American psychologist: A reconsideration of nature-

nurture debates in the interwar United States. Journal of the History of the Behavioral

Sciences, 52(4), 325–348. https://doi-org.proxy1.calsouthern.edu/10.1002/jhbs.21811

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Wylie, R. (2016). Why our ancestors drilled holes in each other's skulls. Retrieved from

https://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160826-why-our-ancestors-drilled-holes-in-each-

others-skulls