Stress

 HANS SELYE (1907-1982) ” FATHER OF STRESS”

 GAS THREE STAGE BY SELYE
o Stage 1: Alarm: Upon perceiving a stressor, the body reacts with “fight or fight”
response and the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated as the body’s
resources are mobilized
o .Stage 2: Resistance: The body resists and compensates as the para sympathetic
nervous system attempts to return many physiological functions to normal levels
while body focuses resources against the stressor and remains on alert.
o Stage 3: Exhaustion: If the stressor or stressors continue beyond the body’s
capacity, the resources become exhausted and the body is susceptible to disease
and death
 slowed digestion, Shaking, tunnel vision, Accelerated breathing and heart rate Dilation of
pupils and flushed skin, This process is referred to as “fight or flight” response.
HUMAN STRESS RESPONSE

 First, the brain initiates the most immediate response signaling the adrenal glands to
release epinephrine and norepinephrine.
 Then, the hypothalamus and pituitary activate another part of the adrenals, releasing
cortisol.
 This is followed by the nervous system initiating behavioral responses like alertness,
focus, reduction of pain receptors and the inhibition of reproductive behaviors and
desires.
 The sympathetic nervous system then kicks in to increase the heart rate, blood pressure
and release fuel to help fight or get out of danger as it redirects blood flow to the heart,
muscles and brain, away from the gastrointestinal tract and digestive processes.
 To accommodate these demands there is a vast increase in energy production and
utilization of nutrients and fluids in the body.
 Once the stressful situation has passed, the brain signals the responses to be “turned off”
and finally recovery and relaxation allow the body to re-establish balance in all systems,
replacing lost nutrients and eliminating waste products accumulated during the process.

Emotional Responses

 Annoyance, anger, rage, Apprehension, anxiety, fear, rejection, sadness, grief, Positive
emotions

EFFECTS OF STRESS: PHYSICAL

Psychosomatic diseases
  Heart disease
o Type A behavior -3 elements
o strong competitiveness impatience and time urgency anger and hostility
o Emotional reactions and depression
o Stress and immune functioning
o Reduced immune activity

Inflammatory
Anatomy of immune system:

 components includes:
o 1. Lymphoid tissue
o 2. Bone marrow
o 3. WBC

LYMPHOID TISSUE

 Spleen -composed of red and white pulp, act like a filter

-red pulp> is the site where old and injured red blood cells are destroyed
-white pulp> contain concentration of lymphocytes
 Lymph nodes-serve as a center for immune cells proliferation
 Tonsils, adenoids, mucoid lymphatic tissue-contain immune cells that defends body’s
mucosal surfaces against microorganism

BONE MARROW

 Is the production site of the WBC involved in immunity - Where you can find stem cells,
w/c are undifferentiated cells, produce lymphocytes, the B lymphocytes and the T
lymphocytes,
 B lymphocytes mature in the bone marrow
 T lymphocytes move from the bone marrow to the thymus, where they mature.
 IMMUNITY-derived from the latinword “Immunitas” meaning exemption.

- “Protection” -”has specific protective response

THE BODY’S DEFENSES INCLUDE

1. Barrier defenses
a. Physical barriers-skin & mucous membranes
b. Chemical barriers-gastric acid juices, enzymes in tears & saliva, substances in
sebaceous and sweat glands.
c. Major Histocompatibility Complex-(MHC)

2. Cellular defenses - also called Mononuclear Phagocyte System (MPS)Composed of:

Leukocytes or WBC and numerous chemical mediators

Stem cells in the bone marrow produce two types of WBC or Leukocytes:

1. Myelocytes 2. Lymphocytes

Granular Leukocytes:

1.Neutrophils –first to arrive at the site of attack.-it is intensely phagocytic.

2. Eosinophils –involve in allergic `reactions

3.Basophils –releases chemical substances.(cell mediators) Histamine, Bradykinin,

Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Pyrogen.-Important to assist in fighting invasion

3 a. Bradykinin-causes vasodilation-stimulates nerve endings to cause pain.

Arachidonic Acid –release subs. that act like local hormones.

a. Prostaglandins-augment inflammatory reaction/ block it.

b. Leukotrienes-has property called “Chemotaxis”

-causes myalgia and arthralgia.

-induce slow-wave sleep.

c. Thromboxanes -causes local vasoconstriction/ platelet aggregation and blood coagulation

3. b. Histamine-causes vasodilation/ changes capillary permeability. -also stimulates pain

perception-releases a natural subs pyrogen-fever causing.

Pyrogen-resets specific neurons in the hypothalamus to maintain higher temp

5. Bone tissue - Osteoclasts

6. Skin-Langerhan’scells

7. Nervous System-Microglial cells - Fixed macrophages engulf and destroy foreign

pathogens/material in their environment. - As they mature their phagocytic ability increases

c. Immune response

d. Inflammatory response

1. Calor (heat)

2. Tumor (swelling)
3. Rubor(redness)

4. Dolor (pain)-

Complement-destroy the antigen by altering the membrane.

-induce chemotaxis

- induce to release histamine

(which bring all the component of the inflammatory reaction to destroy the antigen.)

*The initial formation of antibodies takes several days –INCUBATION PERIOD

IgA - FOUND IN COLOSTRUM, TEARS, SALIVA, SWEAT

Ig - DUNKNOWN, ANTIGEN RECEPTOR, FOUND IN THE SURFACE OF B CELLS

IgE - RESPONDS TO ALLERGICREACTION

IgG - MOST PREVALENT ANTIBODY 80%, PRODUCED LATERIN THE IMMUNE

RESPONSE, ONLY Ig THAT CAN CROSS PLACENTA

IgM - PRINCIPAL ANTIBODY OF BLOOD, QUICKLY PRODUCED IN RESPONSE TO AN

ANTIGEN, RESPONDS TO ARTIFICIAL IMMUNIZATION

T cells

-Travel to Thymus

-constituents of lymphoid organs.

*when APC present Ag with help of MHC the T cell activates and proliferates into:

-Cytotoxic or Effector cells

-Helper T cells-Suppressor T cells

-and some memory T cells

T cells

a. Effector or Cytotoxic/ Killer T cells-to destroy or marked for destruction by phagocytes.

b. Helper T cells - interact with B cell to stimulate B cell proliferation & diff into antibody
secreting cells. -stimulate inflammatory & immune response.

c. Suppressor T cells - dampen the immune system & inflammatory response.

d. Memory T cells - recognize Ag upon re-exposure.

Other Chemicals released: called “Cytokine”

Tumor Necrosis Factor(TNF)-inhibits tumor growth

Interferons-suppress malignant cell replication and tumor growth.

Interleukins-secreted by other leukocytes to influence other leukocytes

Stages of Immune System Response:

1. Recognition

2. Proliferation stage

3. Response Stage
 a. humoral response b. cellular response

4. Effector stage

Diagnostic Assessment:

1.WBC-Differentials

2. ESR (erythrocytes sedimentation rate)

3. Cultures/Gram stain

Factors influence inflammation:

1. Age-Both extremes of age (infant & aged)

2. Nutrition/Adequacy of food supply

3. Availability of White Blood Cells

4. Immune Response

5. Hormonal Influences6. Metabolism

Conditions arise that cause problems involving Immune System:

1. Neoplasm

2. Viral Invasion

3. Autoimmune disease

4. Transplant rejection