CHAPTER 5

ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA

DATA ANALYSIS
The data, after collection, has to be processed and analyzed in accordance with the outline laid
down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is essential for a scientific
study, for ensuring that we have all relevant data for making contemplated comparisons and
analysis. The term analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching
for patterns of relationship that exist among data-groups. Computation means the procedure of
calculating; determining something by mathematical or logical methods. Thus, “in the process of
analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses
should be subjected to statistical tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be
said to indicate any conclusions”

Data Analysis is the process of organizing, displaying, summarizing, and asking questions about
data. Data analysis is the process of developing answers to questions through the examination
and interpretation of data.  The basic steps in the analytic process consist of:

 identifying issues,

 determining the availability of suitable data,

 deciding on which methods are appropriate for answering the questions of interest,

 applying the methods and evaluating,

 summarizing and communicating the results. 

The procedure followed for analyzing the collapsed (distorted) data will be discussed first, after
which the presentation of the data follows.

 The data must have analyzed according to the research questions posed earlier in the
study.

 Data analysisAn attempt by the researcher to summarize collected data.

Data analysis is the process of developing answers to questions through the examination and
interpretation of data. 

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The basic steps in the analytic process consist of identifying issues, determining the availability
of suitable data, deciding on which methods are appropriate for answering the questions of
interest, applying the methods and evaluating, summarizing and communicating the results. 

Analytical results underscore the usefulness of data sources by shedding light on relevant issues.
Some Statistics Canada programs depend on analytical output as a major data product because,
for confidentiality reasons, it is not possible to release the microdata to the public. Data analysis
also plays a key role in data quality assessment by pointing to data quality problems in a given
survey. Analysis can thus influence future improvements to the survey process.

Data analysis is essential for understanding results from surveys, administrative sources and pilot
studies; for providing information on data gaps; for designing and redesigning surveys; for
planning new statistical activities; and for formulating quality objectives.

PROCESSING OPERATIONS

With this brief introduction concerning the concepts of processing and analysis, we can now
proceed with the explanation of all the processing operations.

1. Editing: Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (specially in
surveys) to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. As a matter
of fact, editing involves a careful scrutiny (examination) of the completed questionnaires
and/or schedules. Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent with
other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as completed as possible and have been well
arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.
2. Coding: Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers
so that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes
should be appropriate to the research problem under consideration. They must also
possess the characteristic of exhaustiveness (i.e., there must be a class for every data
item) and also that of mutual exclusively which means that a specific answer can be
placed in one and only one cell in a given category set. Another rule to be observed is
that of unidimensional by which is meant that every class is defined in terms of only one
concept

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 3. Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be
reduced into homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful relationships. This fact
necessitates classification of data which happens to be the process of arranging data in
groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics. Data having a common
characteristic are placed in one class and in this way the entire data get divided into a
number of groups or classes.
4. Tabulation: When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the
researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order. This procedure
is referred to as tabulation. Thus, tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and
displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further
analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and
rows.

Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons.

1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum.

2. It facilitates the process of comparison.

3. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions.

4. It provides a basis for various statistical computations.

5.1. Data presentation and description

Once data has been collected, it has to be classified and organized in such a way that it becomes
easily readable and interpretable, that is, converted to information. Before the calculation of
descriptive statistics, it is sometimes a good idea to present data as tables, charts, diagrams or
graphs. Most people find ‘pictures’ much more helpful than ‘numbers’ in the sense that, in their
opinion, they present data more meaningfully.

Various possible types of presentation of data and justification for their use in given situations.

TABULAR FORMS

This type of information occurs as individual observations, usually as a table or array of

disorderly values. These observations are to be firstly arranged in some order (ascending or

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descending if they are numerical) or simply grouped together in the form of a frequency table
before proper presentation on diagrams is possible.

LINE GRAPHS

A line graph is usually meant for showing the frequencies for various values of a variable.
Successive points are joined by means of line segments so that a glance at the graph is enough
for the reader to understand the distribution of the variable.

single line graphs

The simplest of line graphs is the single line graph, so called because it displays information
concerning one variable only, in terms of its frequencies.

Multiple Line Graphs

Multiple line graphs illustrate information on several variables so that comparison is possible
between them. Consider the following table containing information on the ages of first-year
students attending courses the University of Mauritius (UoM), the De Chazal du Mée Business
School (DCDMBS) and the University of Technology of Mauritius (UTM) respectively.

example

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PIIE CHARTS

A pie chart or circular diagram is one which essentially displays the relative figures (proportions
or percentages) of classes or strata of a given sample or population. We should not include
absolute values (class frequencies) on a pie chart. Perhaps, this is the simplest diagram that can
be used to display data and that is the reason why it is quite limited in its presentation.

The pie chart follows the principle that the angle of each of its sectors should be proportional to
the frequency of the class that it represents.

BAR CHARTS

The bar chart is one of the most common methods of presenting data in a visual form. Its main
purpose is to display quantities in the form of bars. A bar chart consists of a set of bars whose
heights are proportional to the frequencies that they represent.

Note that: the figure may be drawn horizontally or vertically. There are different types of bar
charts, depending on the number of variables and the type of information to be displayed.

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5.2. Exploring, Displaying and examining data

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 5.3. HYPOTHESIS TESTING

HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis is usually considered as the principal instrument in research. Its main function is to
suggest new experiments and observations. In fact, many experiments are carried out with the
deliberate object of testing hypotheses. Decision-makers often face situations wherein they are
interested in testing hypotheses on the basis of available information and then take decisions on
the basis of such testing. In social science, where direct knowledge of population parameter(s) is
rare, hypothesis testing is the often-used strategy for deciding whether a sample data offer such
support for a hypothesis that generalization can be made. Thus, hypothesis testing enables us to
make probability statements about population parameter(s). The hypothesis may not be proved
absolutely, but in practice it is accepted if it has withstood a critical testing. Before we explain

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how hypotheses are tested through different tests meant for the purpose, it will be appropriate to
explain clearly the meaning of a hypothesis and the related concepts for better understanding of
the hypothesis testing techniques.

WHAT IS A HYPOTHESIS?

Ordinarily, when one talks about hypothesis, one simply means a mere assumption or some
supposition to be proved or disproved. But for a researcher hypothesis is a formal question
that he intends to resolve. Thus, a hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of
propositions set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of
phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or
accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts. Quite often a research hypothesis is
a predictive statement, capable of being tested by scientific methods, that relates an independent
variable to some dependent variable. For example, consider statements like the following ones:

“Students who receive counselling will show a greater increase in creativity than students not

receiving counselling” Or

“the automobile A is performing as well as automobile B.”

These are hypotheses capable of being objectively verified and tested. Thus, we may conclude
that

a hypothesis states what we are looking for and it is a proposition which can be put to a test to
determine its validity.

Characteristics of hypothesis:

Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:

(i) Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and precise, the
inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.

(ii) Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. In a swamp of untestable hypotheses, many a
time the research programs have bogged down. Some prior study may be done by researcher in
order to make hypothesis a testable one. A hypothesis “is testable if other deductions can be
made from it which, in turn, can be confirmed or disproved by observation.”

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(iii) Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a relational
hypothesis.

(iv) Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher must remember
that narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and he should develop such hypotheses.

(v) Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same is easily
understandable by all concerned. But one must remember that simplicity of hypothesis has
nothing to do with its significance.

(vi) Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be consistent with a
substantial body of established facts. In other words, it should be one which judges accept as
being the most likely.

(vii) Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. One should not use even
an excellent hypothesis, if the same cannot be tested in reasonable time for one cannot spend a
life-time collecting data to test it.

(viii) Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation. This means

that by using the hypothesis plus other known and accepted generalizations, one should be able
to deduce the original problem condition. Thus, hypothesis must actually explain what it claims
to explain; it should have empirical reference.

BASIC CONCEPTS CONCERNING TESTING OF HYPOTHESES

Basic concepts in the context of testing of hypotheses need to be explained as:

(a) Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis: In the context of statistical analysis, we often
talk about null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. If we are to compare method A with
method B about its superiority and if we proceed on the assumption that both methods are
equally good, then this assumption is termed as the null hypothesis. As against this, we may
think that the method A is superior or the method B is inferior, we are then stating what is termed
as alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is generally symbolized as H0 and the alternative
hypothesis as Ha. Suppose we want to test the hypothesis that the population mean µ is equal to

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the hypothesized mean (µH0) = 100. Then we would say that the null hypothesis is that the
population mean is equal to the hypothesized mean 100 and symbolically we can express as:

If our sample results do not support this null hypothesis, we should conclude that something else
is true. What we conclude rejecting the null hypothesis is known as alternative hypothesis. In
other words, the set of alternatives to the null hypothesis is referred to as the alternative
hypothesis.

If we accept H0, then we are rejecting Ha and if we reject H 0, then we are accepting Ha. For H0:
µ= µH0 =100, we may consider three possible alternative hypotheses as follows:

The null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis are chosen before the sample is drawn (the
researcher must avoid the error of deriving hypotheses from the data that he collects and then
testing the hypotheses from the same data). In the choice of null hypothesis, the following
considerations are usually kept in view:

1) Alternative hypothesis is usually the one which one wishes to prove and the null
hypothesis is the one which one wishes to disprove. Thus, a null hypothesis represents the
hypothesis we are trying to reject, and alternative hypothesis represents all other
possibilities.

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 2) If the rejection of a certain hypothesis when it is actually true involves great risk, it is
taken as null hypothesis because then the probability of rejecting it when it is true is α
(the level of significance) which is chosen very small.
3) Null hypothesis should always be specific hypothesis i.e., it should not state about or
approximately a certain value.

Generally, in hypothesis testing we proceed on the basis of null hypothesis, keeping the
alternative hypothesis in view. Why so? The answer is that on the assumption that null
hypothesis is true, one can assign the probabilities to different possible sample results, but this
cannot be done if we proceed with the alternative hypothesis. Hence the use of null hypothesis
(at times also known as statistical hypothesis) is quite frequent.

(b) The level of significance: This is a very important concept in the context of hypothesis
testing.

It is always some percentage (usually 5%) which should be chosen with great care, thought and
reason. In case we take the significance level at 5 per cent, then this implies that H0 will be
rejected when the sampling result (i.e., observed evidence) has a less than 0.05 probability
of occurring if H0 is true. In other words, the 5 per cent level of significance means that
researcher is willing to take as much as a 5 per cent risk of rejecting the null hypothesis when it
(H0) happens to be true. Thus, the significance level is the maximum value of the probability of
rejecting H0 when it is true and is usually determined in advance before testing the hypothesis.

NOTE THAT: If a hypothesis is of the type µ = H 0, then we call such a hypothesis as simple (or
specific) hypothesis but if it is of the type µ >H 0 or µ<H0 or µ ≠ H0, then we call it a composite
(or nonspecific) hypothesis.

(c) Decision rule or test of hypothesis: Given a hypothesis H0 and an alternative hypothesis Ha,
we make a rule which is known as decision rule according to which we accept H 0 (i.e., reject Ha)
or reject H0 (i.e., accept Ha). For instance, if (H0 is that a certain lot is good (there are very few

defective items in it) against Ha) that the lot is not good (there are too many defective items in it),

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then we must decide the number of items to be tested and the criterion for accepting or rejecting
the hypothesis. We might test 10 (Ten) items in the lot and plan our decision saying that if there
are none or only 1 defective item among the 10, we will accept H0 otherwise we will reject H0

(or accept Ha). This sort of basis is known as decision rule.

Hypothesis testing
In everyday life, we often have to make decisions based on incomplete information. These may
be decisions that are important to us such as, "Will I improve my Programming grades if I spend
more time studying C++?" or "Should I become a chemistry major to increase my chances of
getting into med school?" This section is about the use of hypothesis testing to help us with these
decisions. Hypothesis testing is a kind of statistical inference that involves asking a question,
collecting data, and then examining what the data tells us about how to proceed.

In a formal hypothesis test, hypotheses are always statements about the population. The
hypothesis tests we will examine in this chapter involve statements about the average values
(means) of some variable in the population. For example, we may want to know if the average
time that college freshmen spend studying each week is really 20 hours per week. We may want
to compare this average time spent studying for freshmen that earned a GPA of 3.0 or higher and
those that did not. Then, we will be able to test if the average time studying differs for four
groups: freshmen, sophomores, juniors and seniors.

Developing Null and Alternative Hypotheses

A null hypothesis states that there is no significant difference between two or more parameters.
It is concerned with a judgement as to whether apparent differences are real differences or
whether they merely result from sampling error.

In statistical hypothesis testing, there are always two hypotheses. The hypothesis to be tested is
called the null hypothesis and given the symbol H0. The null hypothesis states that there is no
difference between a hypothesized population mean and a sample mean. It is the status quo
hypothesis.

For example, if we were to test the hypothesis that college freshmen study 20 hours per week, we
would express our null hypothesis as:

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 H0: µ = 20

We test the null hypothesis against an alternative hypothesis, which is given the symbol Ha. The
alternative hypothesis is often the hypothesis that you believe yourself! It includes the
outcomes not covered by the null hypothesis. In this example, our alternative hypothesis would
express that freshmen do not study 20 hours per week:

Ha: µ ≠ 20

Example A

We have a medicine that is being manufactured and each pill (tablet) is supposed to have 14
milligrams of the active ingredient. What are our null and alternative hypotheses?

solution

H0: µ = 14

Ha: µ ≠14

Our null hypothesis states that the population has a mean equal to 14 milligrams. Our alternative
hypothesis states that the population has a mean that is different than 14 milligrams.

Example B

The school principal wants to test if it is true what teachers say – that high school juniors use the
computer an average 3.2 hours a day. What are our null and alternative hypotheses?

H0: µ = 3.2

Ha: µ ≠ 3.2

Our null hypothesis states that the population has a mean equal to 3.2 hours. Our alternative
hypothesis states that the population has a mean that differs from 3.2 hours.

Notes about calculator functions for hypothesis tests.

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In practice, we will use the calculator functions TTest, ZTest, and 1-PropZTest to do the
calculations for hypothesis tests. You must be able to select the appropriate test, know how to set
up the test in the calculator, and interpret the results.

 Use T Test when testing a claim about µ, σ unknown.

 Use Z Test when testing a claim about µ, σ known.
 µ0 or p0 should be set to the value of the parameter assumed in the null hypothesis, NOT
to the sample value.
 Choose the symbol ≠, <, or > that corresponds to the alternative hypothesis.

Test types:
Left-tailed: (H a is “<”) p-value is area to the left of the sample statistic. α is the area in the left
tail.
Right-tailed: (H a is “>”) p-value is area to the right of the sample statistic. α is the area in the
right tail.
Two-tailed: (H a is “≠”) p-value is double the tail-area bounded outside the sample statistic. α is
split equally between the two tails.

The null hypothesis (H0) is a statement involving equality (=, ≤, ≥) about a population
parameter.

The alternative hypothesis (Ha) must not involve equality (6=, <, >)

Once you have the null and alternative hypothesis nailed down, there are only two possible
decisions we can make, based on whether or not the experimental outcome contradicts our
assumption (null hypothesis).

(1) Reject the Null Hypothesis (and therefore, Support the Alternative Hypothesis).
(2) Do Not Reject the Null Hypothesis (and therefore, Do Not Support the Alternative
Hypothesis).

Conducting a Hypothesis Test on One Sample Mean When the Population Parameters are
Known

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Although this is rarely the case, we can use our familiar z-statistic to conduct a hypothesis test on
a single sample mean. In short, we find the z-statistic of our sample mean in the sampling
distribution and determine if that z-score falls within the critical (rejection) region or not. This
test is only appropriate when you know the true mean and standard deviation of the population.

Example A

The school nurse thinks the average height of 7th graders has increased. The average height of a
7th grader five years ago was 145 cm with a standard deviation of 20 cm. She takes a random
sample of 200 students and finds that the average height of her sample is 147 cm. Are 7th graders
now taller than they were before? Conduct a single-tailed hypothesis test using a .05 significance
level to evaluate the null and alternative hypotheses.

First, we develop our null and alternative hypotheses:

H0: µ ≤ 145

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 Ha: µ > 145

Choose α = .05. The critical value for this one tailed test is z=1.64. This is a one-tailed test, and a
z-score of 1.64 cuts off 5% in the single tail. Any test statistic greater than 1.64 will be in the
rejection region. Next, we calculate the test statistic for the sample of 7th graders.

The calculated z−score of 1.414 is smaller than 1.64 and thus does not fall in the critical region.
Our decision is to fail to reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the probability of
obtaining a sample mean equal to 147 is likely to have been due to chance.

Example B

A farmer is trying out a planting technique that he hopes will increase the yield on his pea plants.
The average number of pods on one of his pea plants is 145 pods with a standard deviation of
100 pods. This year, after trying his new planting technique, he takes a random sample of his
plants and finds the average number of pods to be 147. He wonders whether or not this is a
statistically significant increase. What are his hypotheses and the test statistic?

1. First, we develop our null and alternative hypotheses:

H0: µ ≤ 145
Ha: µ > 145

This alternative hypothesis is >since he believes that there might be a gain in the number of pods.

2. Next, we calculate the test statistic for the sample of pea plants.

3. If we choose α = .05

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4. The critical value will be 1.645. We will reject the null hypothesis if the test statistic is
greater than 1.645. The value of the test statistic is 0.24.

5. This is less than 1.645 and so our decision is to fail to reject H0.

6. Based on our sample we believe the mean is equal to 145.

5.4. Measures of Association

When data is collected on the basis of some attribute or attributes, we have statistics commonly
termed as statistics of attributes. It is not necessary that the objects may process only one
attribute; rather it would be found that the objects possess more than one attribute. In such a
situation our interest may remain in knowing whether the attributes are associated with each
other or not. For example, among a group of people we may find that some of them are
inoculated against small-pox and among the inoculated we may observe that some of them
suffered from small-pox after inoculation. The important question which may arise for the
observation is regarding the efficiency of inoculation for its popularity will depend upon the
immunity which it provides against small-pox. In other words, we may be interested in knowing
whether inoculation and immunity from small-pox are associated. Technically, we say that the
two attributes are associated if they appear together in a greater number of cases than is to be
expected if they are independent and not simply on the basis that they are appearing together in a
number of cases as is done in ordinary life.

The association may be positive or negative (negative association is also known as

disassociation).

Before we discuss measures of association, we need to talk about independent and dependent
variables.  The dependent variable is whatever you are trying to explain.  For example, let’s say
we want to find out why some people think they will eventually graduate from a four-year
college while others don’t.   The independent variable is some variable that you think might help
you answer this question.  Perhaps we decide to use their grades in high school as our
independent variable. 

A measure of association is a numerical value that tells us how strongly related two variables
are.  There are several characteristics of a good measure of association.

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  They range from a value of 0 (i.e., no relationship) to 1 (i.e., the strongest possible
relationship).
 For variables that have an underlying order from low to high they can be positive or
negative.  A positive value indicates that as one variable increases, the other variable also
increases.  A negative value indicates that as one variable increases, the other variable
decreases.
 Some measures specify which variable is dependent and which is independent.  The
independent variable is some variable that you think might help explain the variation in
the dependent variable.  For example, if your two variables were education and voting
you might choose education as the independent variable and voting as your dependent
variable because you think that education will help you explain why some people vote
Democrat and others vote Republican. Measures of association that specify which
variable is dependent and which is independent are called asymmetric measures and
measures that don’t specify which is dependent and which is independent are called
symmetric measures.

5.5. Report Writing: Presenting insights (understandings) and findings

Today, one of the most basic means of communication in our professional life is written
presentation, such as scientific paper, technical report, assignment report, abstract, theses,
conference report, etc. Written presentations have one striking characteristics which is different
from that of verbal presentations, that is, written presentations are exposed to readers. ‘wz In
contrast, verbal presentations are exposed to an audience, Poster is a kind of combination of
written presentation and verbal representation. Thus, to avoid any confusion on the part of the
reader, written presentations demand logic, clarity and precision

The fundamental elements of good writing

Writing is an art. And this lesson will not impart the artistic skills to turn you into an
accomplished author. However, it will provide you with guidelines and tips that will improve
your writing skills sufficiently to serve a purpose.

Purpose

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A specific type of written presentation has to meet a specific need which depends on the purpose
of the writing. We will limit our discussion to technical papers that are most likely to be read by
individuals with sufficient level of scientific background. Even amongst these types of written
papers, a variety of formats, editorial requirements, etc. are applicable depending on the
particular area of scientific endeavor and/or the specific publication (E.g. journal, technical
manual, etc). It would be unrealistic to cover all possible formats, therefore, we will limit
ourselves to a generic format that is more widely pertinent to what you, as a graduate student,
will encounter.

Writing, like any other human activity, is driven by a purpose. So, the initial step to writing well
is knowing the purpose of writing. In the case of scientific writing, the purpose is to get across
an idea, a finding, etc. across to a wider readership. Once you become fully aware of the
purpose of your writing, the quality of the paper you write will show substantial improvement (at
least in form, if not in style). Hence, a poorly written paper is either a consequence of deficiency
in understanding the purpose of writing, or lack of proper implementation.

The purpose of writing a scientific report is to communicate an idea or set of ideas to people who
want to understand the level of scientific progress in a specific area of specialization, and many a
times to even carry the idea(s) further. Scientific progress is the cumulative effect of ideas that
were effectively communicated over many centuries. Some ideas are obviously better than
others and one cannot argue that effective writing by itself will ensure that the idea will push the
frontiers of science. On the contrary, a very good idea that is not effectively communicated may
be lost in the growing volume of reports and thus not impact or contribute to the advancement of
science.

The target audience

Once an idea has been identified or formulated, then the effort will be to present this idea in the
best possible way to the target audience. Which brings us to the question, “Who is the relevant
target audience?”. Writing a scientific report to a narrow base of esoteric experts is not
desirable. After all, we want the report to be read by as many interested current and future
researchers as possible. In your case, it is safe to assume that the potential reader will be
intelligent and have some basic scientific background, but no more. In other words, someone like

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you … a post-graduate student. Of course, at times it may be necessary to prepare a report for
policy makers, general public, etc., in these instances you should tailor your report to the
perceived level of scientific understanding.

Unfortunately, while writing their thesis, most graduate students focus on their advisor or at
most the graduate examining committee as their target reader. This is a common fallacy that you
need to avoid at all cost. Your thesis, your seminar report, etc. should be written for all
interested current and future researchers. Not properly identifying your reader usually leads to
some mistakes in writing (such as use of abbreviations).

Having properly identified the relevant reader of the scientific paper, we need to understand this
audience. Anyone who picks up to read your writing is either interested in acquiring new
information or achieving a better understanding. Therefore, in order to serve the reader, your
paper should have pertinent information. Moreover, the information you would like to convey
must be presented in an arrangement such that the reader will not spend an inordinate amount of
time in extracting the information. It is usually the case that graduate students tend to forget who
the thesis/paper is being written for and thus their written products do not appeal to a wider
audience.

The Organization

The organization of the paper refers to the structure, i.e. the sequence in which you present each
type of information. The scientific report should have distinctive and clearly evident component
parts. It is always desirable for you to create an outline of the paper based on the component
parts and filling in the major points you want to cover in each part. This will organize your
thoughts and will make the writing process less painful. Below you will find the list of the parts
of a typical scientific report:

-Title

- Acknowledgement

- Abstract

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- Introduction

- Materials and methods

- Results

- Discussion/Conclusion

- References

- Appendices, where applicable

THE PRESENTER
Even though a work being presented in an oral presentation may be a collaborative effort, it is
customary that only one person takes up the role of a presenter. Particularly at the postgraduate
level, you are most likely to be the sole candidate to prepare and present an oral presentation.

An oral presentation is not only a presentation of the body of your work, but you are also
presenting yourself as the person who conducted the research project. So, you should pay
attention to your own present-ability as you do your work. Oral presentations, such as seminars
and defenses are venues that provide you with an opportunity to impress your colleagues, and
fellow scientists. Who knows, perhaps your future prospective employer may be in the
audience!

There are accepted norms that a presenter should generally follow. Primary among these is
physical appearance. Try and dress appropriately. There is no defined dress code, but there are
certain “don’ts” that you should always follow.

 Do not dress shabbily

 Do not come with unkempt hair
 Do not wear slippers
 Do not wear jeans and T-shirt, or other extremely casual attire

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 CHAPTER 6

CURRENT RESEARCH TOPICS IN INFORMATION SYSTEM (IS)

OVERVIEW ABOUT RESEARCH

People have long strived to come to grips with their environment and to understand the nature of
the phenomena it presents to their senses. One of the means by which they set out to achieve
these ends is research. Research is an often-misused term; its usage in everyday language is very
different from the strict scientific meaning. In the field of science, it is important to move away
from the looser meaning and use it only in its proper context. Scientific research adheres to a set
of strict protocols and long-established structures.

Research is defined as human activity based on intellectual application in the investigation of

matter. In other words, research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information
to increase our understanding of the phenomenon under study. It is the function of the researcher
to contribute to the understanding of the phenomenon and to communicate that understanding to
others. It may be said that the general aims of research are to observe and describe, to predict,
to determine causes and explain.

The strict definition of scientific research study in order to prove a hypothesis or answer a
specific question. Finding a definitive answer is the central goal of any experimental process.

Research must be systematic and follow a series of steps and a rigid standard protocol. These
rules are broadly similar but may vary slightly between the different fields of science. Scientific

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research must be organized and undergo planning, including performing literature reviews of
past research and evaluating what questions need to be answered

Any type of ‘real’ research requires some kind of interpretation and an opinion from the
researcher. This opinion is the underlying principle, or question, that establishes the nature and
type of experiment.

CURRENT RESEARCH TOPICS IN INFORMATION SYSTEM (IS)

 Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge Management

We primarily focus on applying AI techniques such as natural language processing, machine

learning, multi-agent, and intelligent tutoring to a variety of applications including knowledge
management (knowledge acquisition, filtering, organization, and reuse, etc), text mining,
information extraction, ontology development, and Web-based learning.

 Data Science

The area includes both fundamental and applied research in database management, data mining,
and data warehousing. Faculty research includes database and data warehouse; data mining
methodologies and applications, specifically privacy preserving data mining, anomaly detection,
spatial data mining, and data mining for digital government; data integration; and mobile
databases. Research has been conducted in application areas such as cyber security, GIS,
healthcare, and digital government.

 computer vision: One of the following topics.

-Recognizing human activities from video

- Scene categorization and event recognition for 3D scene modeling

- Sensing and navigation of visual attention

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  Data mining of human driving behavior data

Analysis of large-scale data collected from our studies on eco-driving, disaster evacuation, traffic
congestion, etc

1. Principles of Informatics Research Division

2. Information Systems Architecture Science Research Division
3. Digital Content and Media Sciences Research Division
4. Information and Society Research Division
5. Collaborative Research Division

Topics of interest:

1 - Information system and economic intelligence

A. Conceptual models of information systems

B. Data warehousing

C. Data mining and information retrieval

2 - Collaborative information retrieval

A. Trends in internal and external enterprise monitoring tools and E.I. tools

B. Strategic information and economic intelligence systems

C. Collaborative work and filtering, information collection and analysis in information

retrieval systems

3 - Languages and knowledge industries

A. Information heterogeneous or multilingual, process analysis and design corpus of

information

B. Mapping of resources, indexing and knowledge management

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 C. Annotation and decision making

4 - Economic intelligence and management

A. Integration of EI concepts in industry: experiences and case studies

B. Concepts, processes and actions in EI: research and applications

C. Key success factors of EI and performance measures

5 - Cognitive and social dimensions in watch and EI processes

A. Multidimensional approaches of “information need” notion

B. Cognitive and social dimensions of information practices

C. Integration of monitoring and EI tools

6 - Information management and knowledge sharing

A. Enterprise organizational memory, management of operational know-how.

B. Taking into consideration of adapted means of description: towards multimedia

C. Information, competitive, and technological intelligence

D. Managing information overload

7 - Intelligent e-Technology

A. Intelligent Human-Web Interaction

B. Semantics and Ontology Engineering

C. Web Mining, Web agents and Web Services

D. Security, Integrity, Privacy and Trust of systems

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8 - Information systems governance

A. Production of value and strategic alignment

B. Resource management, risk measurement and performance of information systems

C. Norms and methods

9 - System Development and community applications

A. Architectures and business applications including finance, economics and

management

B. Communication networks: social networks, e-Business and e-Reputation

C. Corporate Governance: quality, security, certification and performance

AREAS OF RESEARCH IN COMPUTING

PARALEL SESSION A: COMPUTER SCIENCE

The topics of interest will include, but not limited to the following:

 Algorithms
 Discrete and Continuous Optimization
 Grid Computing
 Parallel and Grid simulations
 Distributed computing
 Cluster Computing
 Parallel computer architectures
 Shared-memory multiprocessors

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  Multi-computers and distributed processing
 Fault-tolerant computing
 Applications and performance analysis
 Agent Based modelling
 Expert and Intelligent Systems
 Expert Systems

PARALLEL SESSION B: SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

The topics of interest will include, but not limited to the following:

 Component-Based Software Engineering

 Software Architecture
 Web Services

PARALLEL SESSION C: INFORMATION SYSTEMS

The topics of interest will include, but not limited to the following:

Business Process Management in Organizations

 Work flow systems

 Systematic Dynamics Modeling
 Research in Dynamic Systems
 Methodologies, Models and Tools for IS Development

Philosophical foundations of Information Systems

1. Trans-disciplinary research in Information Systems

2. Research Methods in IS in Developing Countries Ontologies Applications

Information Systems: Tools, Technologies and Techniques

1. Information Systems and Mobile Computing

2. Human Computer Interface

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 3. Distributed, Mobile and open Architectures

Geographic Information Systems

Decision Support and Simulation

1. Simulation in Support for Decision Making

2. Information Visualization and Decision Support Systems

3. African information Systems Paradox

CHAPTER 7
ETHICS IN RESEARCH

Ethics is one of the most crucial areas of research, with deception, misconduct and abuses in
research increasingly becoming a crucial area of discussion, for instance, between psychologists,
philosophers, ethical groups, health professionals and researchers engaged in various fields of
research.

The history and development of international research ethics guidance is, for example, strongly
reflective of abuses and mistakes made especially in the course of biomedical research. Today it
is widely acknowledged that researchers without training and awareness of principles of research
ethics are at risk of perpetrating abuses or making mistakes of real consequences. Thus, there is
a growing recognition that any researcher conducting research, particularly on/with human
participants, should undergo formal research ethics training.

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Research ethics deals primarily with the interaction between researchers and the people they
study (and in recent decades, on laboratory animals as well); while professional ethics deals,
among others, with additional issues such as collaborative relationships among researchers,
mentoring relationships, intellectual property, fabrication of data and plagiarism
(plagiarism will be covered in the last unit of this module).

Ethics in research are very important when you're going to undertake a research (perform
an experiment, conduct an interview, participant observation, etc.). They apply when you
are planning, conducting and evaluating research. Whenever we conduct research on/with
people, the well-being of research participants must be our top priority. The research
question is always of secondary importance. This means that if a choice must be made
between doing harm to a participant and doing harm to the research, it is the research that is
sacrificed.

What is ethics in research?

The word ethics comes from a Greek word ‘ethos’ (character). Ethics is a systematic study of
value concepts, ‘good’, ‘bad’, ‘right’, ‘wrong’ and the general principles that justify
applying these concepts. It is not considering the poor hapless participant at the expense of
science and society. It is to learn how to make research “work” for all concerned.

When most people think of ethics (or morals), they think of rules for distinguishing
between right and wrong, such as the Golden Rule ("Do unto others as you would have them
do unto you"), a code of professional conduct like the Hippocratic Oath ("First of all,
do no harm"), a religious creed like the Ten Commandments ("Thou Shalt not kill..."),
or wise aphorisms like the sayings of Confucius. This is the most common way of defining
"ethics": ethics are norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable
behavior

Most people learn ethical norms at home, at school, in religious institutions, or in other social
settings. Although most people acquire their sense of right and wrong during childhood,
moral development occurs throughout life and human beings pass through different stages
of growth as they mature. Ethical norms are so ubiquitous that one might be tempted to
regard them as simple commonsense. On the other hand, if morality were nothing more than

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commonsense, then why are there so many ethical disputes and issues in many societies?
One plausible explanation of these disagreements is that all people recognize some common
ethical norms but different individuals interpret, apply, and balance these norms in
different

ways in light of their own values and life experiences

Why is research ethics important?

There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research. First, some
of these norms promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error.
For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data
promote the truth and avoid error. Second, since research often involves a great deal of
cooperation and coordination among many different people in different disciplines and
institutions, many of these ethical standards promote the values that are essential to
collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For
example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright
and patenting policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are
designed to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration. Most
researchers want to receive credit for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas
stolen or disclosed prematurely.

Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held
accountable to the public. For instance, US federal policies on research misconduct, on
conflicts of interest, on the human study participant’s protections, and on animal care
and use are necessary in order to make sure that researchers who are funded by public money
can be held accountable to the public. Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to build
public support for research. People are more likely to fund research project if they can trust
the quality and integrity of research.

Finally, many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral and social
values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and
health and safety. Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects,
students, and the public. For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may

30
harm or even kill patients and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines
relating to radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and
safety of staff and students.

Some theories of ethics

Utilitarianism: founded on the ability to predict the consequences of an action; the choice that
yields the greatest benefit to the most people is the choice that is ethically correct. One benefit of
this ethical theory is that the utilitarian can compare similar predicted solutions and use a point
system to determine which choice is more beneficial for more people. This point system
provides a logical and rationale argument for each decision and allows a person to use it on a
case-by-case context.

There are two types of Utilitarianism: act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism

Act utilitarianism adheres exactly to the definition of utilitarianism. A person performs the acts
that benefit the most people, regardless of personal feelings or the societal constraints such as
laws.

Rule utilitarianism takes into account the law and is concerned with fairness. A rule utilitarian
seeks to benefit the most people but through the fairest and most just means available.
Therefore, added benefits of rule utilitarianism are that it values justice and includes
beneficence at the same time.

Inherent in both are the flaws associated with predicting the future. Although people can
use their life experiences to attempt to predict outcomes, no human being can be certain that
his predictions will be true. This uncertainty can lead to unexpected results making the
utilitarian look unethical as time passes because his choice did not benefit the most
people as he predicted. Another assumption that a utilitarian must make is that he has the
ability to compare the various types of consequences against each other on a similar scale.
However, comparing material gains such as money against intangible gains such as
happiness is impossible since their qualities differ to such a large extent; it does not allow for
the existence of supererogation or heroes. In other words, people are obligated to constantly
behave so that the most people benefit regardless of the danger associated with an act.

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 Deontology

The deontological theory states that people should adhere to their obligations and duties
when analyzing an ethical dilemma. A person who follows this theory will produce very
consistent decisions since they will be based on the individual's set duties. Deontology provides
a basis for special duties and obligations to specific people. It also praises those deontologists
who exceed their duties and obligations, which is called "supererogation”.

One weakness of this theory is that there is no rationale or logical basis for deciding an
individual's duties. Sometimes a person's duties conflict; deontology sometimes is not
concerned with the welfare of others.

Rights

The rights set forth by a society are protected and given the highest priority. Rights are
considered to be ethically correct and valid since a large or ruling population endorses
them. Individuals may also bestow (give) rights upon others if they have the ability and resources
to do so.

A major complication is that one must decipher what the characteristics of a right are in a
society. The society has to determine what rights it wants to uphold and give to its citizens. In
order for a society to determine what rights it wants to enact, it must decide what the
society's goals and ethical priorities are. Therefore, in order for the rights theory to be useful, it
must be used in conjunction with another ethical theory that will consistently explain the
goals of the society.

Virtue: Judges a person by his character rather than by an action that may deviate from his
normal behavior. It takes the person's morals, reputation and motivation into account when
rating an unusual and irregular behavior that is considered unethical. Major flaw is that it
does not take into consideration a person's change in moral character

Casuist: compares a current ethical dilemma with examples of similar ethical dilemmas
and their outcomes. This allows one to determine the severity of the situation and to create
the best possible solution according to others' experiences. A casuistical theory also assumes

32
that the results of the current ethical dilemma will be similar to results in the examples.
A major drawback to this ethical theory is that there may not be a set of similar
examples for a given ethical dilemma.

Research ethics when dealing with human participants

Basic principles

What are the fundamental research ethics principles? All research involving human beings
should be conducted in accordance with three basic ethical principles, namely respect for
persons, beneficence and justice. These three core principles, originally included in The
Belmont Report which came out in 1979, form the universally accepted basis for research
ethics

1. Respect for persons/autonomy incorporates at least two fundamental ethical

considerations, namely:

a) Respect for autonomy, which requires that those who are capable of deliberation about their
personal choices should be treated with respect for their capacity for self-determination; and

b) Protection of persons with impaired or diminished autonomy, which requires that those
who are dependent or vulnerable be afforded security against harm or abuse

Autonomy or respect for persons requires a commitment to ensuring the autonomy of research
participants, and where autonomy may be diminished, to protect people from exploitation of
their vulnerability. The dignity of all research participants must be respected. Adherence to
this principle ensures that people will not be used simply as a means to achieve research
objectives. According to this principle a study participant has rights to privacy and
confidentiality.

2. Beneficence refers to the ethical obligation to maximize benefits and to minimize harms. This
principle gives rise to norms requiring that the risks of research be reasonable in the light of
the expected benefits, that the research design be sound, and that the investigators be
competent both to conduct the research and to safeguard the welfare of (“mental

33
integrity”, psychological well-being) of the study participants. Beneficence further
proscribes the deliberate infliction of harm on persons; this aspect of beneficence is
sometimes expressed as a separate principle, non- maleficence (do no harm). Beneficence
requires a commitment to minimizing the risks associated with research including
psychological and social risks and maximizing the benefits that accrue to research
participants. Researchers must articulate specific ways this will be achieved.

3. Justice refers to the ethical obligation to treat each person in accordance with what is
morally right and proper, to give each person what is due to him or her. In the ethics of
research involving human research participants the principle refers primarily to distributive
justice, which requires the equitable distribution of both the burdens and the benefits of
participation in research. Justice requires a commitment to ensuring a fair distribution of the
risks and benefits resulting from research. Those who take on the burden of research
participation should share in the benefits of the knowledge gained. In other words, the
people who are expected to benefit from the knowledge should be the ones who are
asked to

participate.

In addition to the three above mentioned established principles, some bioethicists have
suggested that a fourth principle, respect for communities, should be added. Respect for
communities “confers on the researcher an obligation to respect the values and interests of
the community in research and, wherever possible, to protect the community from harm”.
Some scholars believe that this principle is, in fact, fundamental for research when
community-wide knowledge, values, and relationships are critical to research success and may
in turn be affected by the research process or its outcomes.

Informed consent

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Informed consent is a process by which a study participant voluntarily confirms his or her
willingness to participate in a particular trial/study, after having been informed of all aspects of
the trial/study that are relevant to the study participant’s decision to participate.

Research on/with human study participants should be carried out only by, or strictly supervised
by, suitably qualified and experienced investigators and in accordance with a protocol
that clearly states: the aim of the research; the reasons for proposing that it involves
human beings; the nature and degree of any known risks to the study participants; the sources
from which it is proposed to recruit study participants; and the means proposed for
ensuring that study participants' consent will be adequately informed and voluntary. The
protocol should be scientifically and ethically appraised by one or more suitably constituted
review bodies, independent of the investigators/researchers.

Goal of informed consent

The main goal of informed consent is to make sure that the study participant has
understood and make choices freely whether to begin or continue participation in a study.
And the essential elements of informed consent are: information, comprehension and
autonomy of study participants and consent. In short it is a process which addresses three
important questions namely, Who? When? How? The provision of information about the
proposed research project to potential study participants is of critical important in informed
consent.

The information should consist of statement of objectives//purpose, invitation to

participation (voluntary participation and withdrawal), explanation of procedure (selection
criteria), description of discomforts & risks, expected costs and benefit for participation,
availability of provision of care and compensation in case of injury, disclosure of
alternatives, cconfidentiality/privacy, compensation for injury, voluntary
participation/withdrawal (no-coercive disclaimer), offer contact persons for answering
questions, consent to incomplete disclosure. Additional information on source of funding,
conflict of interest, new information will be provided.

Comprehension: while preparing a consent form the researcher has to use local language with
simple & clear language (understood by the study participants), short words & sentences.

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The researcher should use educational intervention prior to obtaining the consent of study
participants. The researcher should avoid the use of technical terms, statements of waiver
of study participants’ rights, avoid wording that suggests coercion or overly reassuring language
and claims of, for example, safety or efficacy.

Informed consent: upholds autonomy or respect for persons which requires legal capacity
to give consent; free power of choice, without undue force, fraud, deceit, duress, constraint or
coercion. Fiduciary relationship (duty to protect) between investigator and study participants;
signing of the consent form with written documentation, the contract signify agreement,
not legally binding; no statement abandoning legal cover; commitment to a fiduciary
relationship; and renegotiation from time to time.

Privacy and confidentiality

The concept of confidentiality is a key element of research ethics in that the researcher needs to
know which types of information can or cannot be shared with a third part with/without the
consent of the study participant. In this regard attention should be paid to the following kinds of
information.

1) Individually identifiable: they directly identify the individual or reasonably could be

used to identify an individual.

2) De-identified; those without individual identifiers.

Identifiers: names, all geographic information, all elements of dates (except year),
including birth, death admission and discharge dates, telephone and fax numbers,
electronic mail addresses, social security numbers, medical record numbers, health plan
beneficiary numbers,

account numbers, certificate/license numbers, vehicle identifiers and serial numbers, including
license plate numbers, device identifiers and serial numbers, web universal resource
locators (URLs), internet protocol (IP) address numbers, biometric identifiers, including
finger and voice prints, full face photographic images and any comparable images, and any
other unique identifying number, characteristic or code..

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The confidentiality of records that could identify study participants should be protected,
respecting the privacy and confidentiality rules in accordance with the applicable regulatory
requirements. Records that contain the following types of information can be included in
this category: genetic information; psychological well-being, sexual attitudes, preferences,
practices; substance abuse or illegal behavior; and other information which may “stigmatize” or
alienate study participants; may be culture specific.

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 Codes and Policies for Research Ethics

Underlying principles of ethics codes

Given the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as no surprise that
many different professional associations, government agencies, and universities have adopted
specific codes, rules, and policies relating to research ethics. Other influential research ethics
policies include, for example, the Uniform Requirements (International Committee of Medical
Journal Editors), the Chemist's Code of Conduct (American Chemical Society), Code of
Ethics (American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science) Ethical Principles of Psychologists
(American Psychological Association), Statements on Ethics and Professional
Responsibility (American Anthropological Association), Statement on Professional Ethics
(American Association of University Professors), The Nuremberg Code and The
Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association). The following is a rough and
general summary of some ethical principals that various codes address:

Honesty: Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results,
methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent
data. Do not deceive colleagues, granting agencies, or the public.

Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer
review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research
where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception.
Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research.

Integrity: Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of
thought and action.

Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own
work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data
collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.

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Openness: Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.

Respect for Intellectual Property: Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of
intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission.
Give credit where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all
contributions to research. Never plagiarize.

Confidentiality: Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted

for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.

Responsible Publication: Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to

advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.

Responsible Mentoring: Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their
welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.

Respect for colleagues: Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.

Social Responsibility: Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms
through research, public education, and advocacy.

Non-Discrimination: Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of

sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and
integrity.

Competence: Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise
through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a
whole.

Legality: Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

Animal Care: Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not
conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.

Human study participants’ protection: When conducting research on human study

participants minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy,

39
and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to
distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.

Bioethics

what is bioethics?
Bioethics requires special mention because of the current trend and progress in use of
modern day molecular genetics, molecular biology, human reproductive technology, etc
and its direct impact on the lives of millions of people and its assault on the common
sensibilities of today’s world.

The goal of Bioethics is not only the development of, or adherence to a code of set of
precepts but a better understanding of the issues. It is prepared to ask deep philosophical
questions about the nature of ethics, the value of life, what it is to be a person, the
significance of being human. Bioethics embraces issues of public policy as well as the direction
and control of science.

Examples: new technology (organ transplant) and developments (stem cell research) in health
care and biomedical sciences; Increasing power of scientists and doctors over patients and
communities; The value-laden nature of medical decision-making and a critical questioning of
the bases of decisions; and New social perspectives – abortion, right to die, etc.

40