For flow of water through bed packed with 4mm glass beads:

fp is modified friction factor

Nrep is modified Reynold's Number

fp = slope * (1/Nrep) + y-intercept (for very low Reynolds number)

fp is a function of pressure drop, length of packed bed, flow rate and bed diameter
Pressure drop is depends on difference in levels of manometric fluid
fp = F (∆P, L, Q, D)
fp =( ∆P * ρ * φ * єᶾ * Dp) / [Go^(2) * L * (1 - є )]
where,
∆P is pressure drop
ρ is fluid density
φ is sphericity of packing used
ε is the void fraction of the packed bed
Dp is equivalent diameter of packing
L is packed bed length
Go is mass flux

Nominal Bed Diameter 0.0381

Length of Packed Bed (L) 1.5
Density of water (ρw) 1000 〖 kg/m 〗 ^3
Density of kerosene (ρk) 820
Density of mercury (ρm) 13600 〖 kg/m 〗 ^3
Density of CCl4 (ρc) 1600 〖 kg/m 〗 ^3
Viscosity of water (μw) 0.00085
Viscosity of kerosene (μk) 0.00215
Volume of Bed (Vb) 0.00171
Bed porosity (ε ) 0.527
Cross-section area 0.0011

For 4mm Glass Beads

sphericity 1
Specific Surface area 810 m^2/m^3
Void Volume (Vv) 0.0009021
Equivalent diameter (Dp) 0.004

Experimental reading and calculations for process fluid water and Hg Manometer**

Flow Rate(Q) ΔHm

(mᶟ/s) (m)
 1.67E-05 0.008
2.50E-05 0.016
3.33E-05 0.026
4.17E-05 0.04
5.00E-05 0.054
5.83E-05 0.072
6.67E-05 0.092
7.50E-05 0.114
8.33E-05 0.138
1.00E-04 0.194
1.17E-04 0.26
1.33E-04 0.336
1.50E-04 0.422
1.67E-04 0.516

modified friction factor (fp) and reciprocal of modified Reynolds number (1/Nrep) vary linearly

x y
(1/Nrep) (fp)
0.0166 3.34
0.0111 2.98
0.0083 2.73
0.0066 2.68
0.0055 2.52
0.0047 2.47
0.0042 2.41
0.0037 2.36
0.0033 2.32
0.0028 2.26
0.0024 2.21
0.0021 2.21
0.0018 2.18
0.0017 2.15

Deterministic Error
 δΔHm (m) (meter scale) δD (m) (Vernier Calipers)
0.001 0.0001

Flow Rate(Q) ΔHm

(mᶟ/s) (m)
1.67E-05 0.008
2.50E-05 0.016
3.33E-05 0.026
4.17E-05 0.04
5.00E-05 0.054
5.83E-05 0.072
6.67E-05 0.092
7.50E-05 0.114
8.33E-05 0.138
1.00E-04 0.194
1.17E-04 0.26
1.33E-04 0.336
1.50E-04 0.422
1.67E-04 0.516

Matrix Analysis

For a straight line equation;

y = FM a + σ

y is observation vector
FM is function Matrix
a is coeffiecient vector
σ is uncertainty vector

Observation vector (y) Function Matrix (FM)

3.35 1
2.98 1
2.72 1
2.68 1
2.52 1
2.46 1
2.41 1
 2.36 1
2.31 1
2.26 1
2.22 1
2.2 1
2.18 1
2.16 1

1.692 2.200
0.028 0.024

Aᵀ A
77.459316977089 0.372789601242147
0.372789601242147 0.002705554606422

[(Aᵀ* A)⁻1] or C
0.0383 -5.2804
-5.2804 1097.1835

(C * Aᵀ* b) or a
2.044
83.216

x (1/Nrep) y calc (fp)

0.0166 3.409
0.0111 2.959
0.0083 2.730
0.0066 2.590
0.0055 2.500
0.0047 2.435
0.0042 2.394
0.0037 2.353
0.0033 2.320
0.0028 2.279
0.0024 2.246
0.0021 2.222
0.0018 2.197
0.0017 2.189
 fp vs 1/Nrep
3.700

3.500

3.300

3.100
fp

2.900

2.700

2.500

2.300

2.100
0.001 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.011 0.013

1/Nrep

χ2 Calculations
χ2 0.08112
N (no. of observations) 14
M (no. of coefficients) 2
N-M (no. of Degrees of Freedom) 12
χ v2 0.00676
ds number)

and bed diameter

fluid

m
m
〖 kg/m 〗 ^3

〖 kg/m 〗 ^3
〖 kg/m 〗 ^3
Pas
Pas
m^3

m^2

m^2/m^3
m^3
m

nd Hg Manometer**

Mass Flow Rate (G) Superficial Mass Velocity (G0)

(kg/s) (m/s)
 0.0167 14.65
0.0250 21.93
0.0333 29.20
0.0417 36.57
0.0500 43.85
0.0583 51.13
0.0667 58.50
0.0750 65.78
0.0833 73.05
0.1000 87.70
0.1170 102.61
0.1330 116.64
0.1500 131.55
0.1670 146.46

s number (1/Nrep) vary linearly

f_p=k×[(∆H_m)/(D^2 × L^4 × Q^2 )]

𝛿_𝑓𝑝=√((𝜕𝑓𝑝/(𝜕∆𝐻_𝑚 )×𝛿∆𝐻_𝑚 )^2+ (𝜕𝑓𝑝/𝜕𝐷×𝛿𝐷)^2

(𝜕𝑓𝑝/𝜕𝑄×𝛿𝑄)^2+ 〖𝜎 _𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑚 〗 ^2 )
 δL (m) (meter scale) δQ (m^3/s) (Rotameter)
0.001 1.67E-07

𝜕fp/𝜕∆Hm 𝜕fp/𝜕D

417.52 -175.34
186.31 -156.48
105.01 -143.32
66.96 -140.61
46.58 -132.03
34.26 -129.48
26.17 -126.40
20.70 -123.88
16.78 -121.56
11.64 -118.58
8.51 -116.10
6.58 -116.10
5.18 -114.64
4.18 -113.09

ction Matrix (FM) Uncertainty vector (σ)

0.0166 0.591
0.0111 0.455
0.0083 0.427
0.0066 0.419
0.0055 0.416
0.0047 0.414
0.0042 0.414
 0.0037 0.413
0.0033 0.413
0.0028 0.413
0.0024 0.413
0.0021 0.413
0.0018 0.413
0.0017 0.413

Aᵀ
2.344 2.389
0.019 0.016

1
0.0166

-0.0835
21.8869

ao (y-intercept) 2.05
a1 (slope) 81.873

σy ycalc-σy
0.1654 3.2437
0.0563 2.9025
0.0263 2.7033
0.0164 2.5739
0.0134 2.4869
0.0129 2.4219
0.0133 2.3805
0.0143 2.3387
0.0154 2.3048
0.0174 2.2619
0.0193 2.2272
0.0210 2.2009
0.0229 2.1745
0.0235 2.1656
 fp vs 1/Nrep

ycalc

ycalc+σy

ycalc-σy

0.009 0.011 0.013 0.015 0.017 0.019

1/Nrep
 ΔP Nrep fp
(Pa)
 988.847999999997 60.32 3.34
1977.69599999999 90.29 2.98
3213.75599999999 120.27 2.73
4944.24 150.61 2.68
6674.72400000001 180.59 2.52
8899.63200000001 210.56 2.47
11371.752 240.90 2.41
14091.084 270.88 2.36
17057.628 300.86 2.32
23979.564 361.17 2.26
32137.56 422.57 2.21
41531.616 480.36 2.21
52161.732 541.76 2.18
63780.696 603.16 2.15

Random error depends on the experimentor and the apparatus used

This experiment was performed virtually with the aid of simulation so random error can be considered arbitrary fo
So, the total error in y-values is the deterministic part that can be calculated plus the assumed random error value
Random error is always less than deterministic error. So, a value less than deterministic part is assumed below**
fp depends on ΔHm, L, Q and D

So, upon simplification we get;

f_p=k×[(∆H_m)/(D^2 × L^4 × Q^2 )]

where k is constant for the experimental setup.

k= (24 ×(ρ_m − ρ_w )×g ×

〖 V_v 〗 ^3)/(π ×S × ρ_w ) = 8.55707E-10

Determistic error in fp (δfp) is;

𝛿_𝑓𝑝=√((𝜕𝑓𝑝/(𝜕∆𝐻_𝑚 )×𝛿∆𝐻_𝑚 )^2+ (𝜕𝑓𝑝/𝜕𝐷×𝛿𝐷)^2+(𝜕𝑓𝑝/𝜕𝐿×𝛿𝐿)^2+
(𝜕𝑓𝑝/𝜕𝑄×𝛿𝑄)^2+ 〖𝜎 _𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑚 〗 ^2 )

(deterministic error part) (random)

random error square (assumed)
0.17

𝜕fp/𝜕L 𝜕fp/𝜕Q δfp

-8.91 -4.00E+05 0.59

-7.95 -2.38E+05 0.45
-7.28 -1.64E+05 0.43
-7.14 -1.28E+05 0.42
-6.71 -1.01E+05 0.42
-6.58 -8.46E+04 0.41
-6.42 -7.22E+04 0.41
-6.29 -6.29E+04 0.41
-6.18 -5.56E+04 0.41
-6.02 -4.52E+04 0.41
-5.90 -3.78E+04 0.41
-5.90 -3.33E+04 0.41
-5.82 -2.91E+04 0.41
-5.75 -2.58E+04 0.41

Error-weighted obs. Vector (b) Error-weighted Func. Matrix (A)

5.669 1.692 0.028

6.556 2.200 0.024
6.375 2.344 0.019
6.403 2.389 0.016
6.064 2.407 0.013
5.939 2.414 0.011
5.827 2.418 0.010
 5.712 2.420 0.009
5.593 2.421 0.008
5.475 2.423 0.007
5.380 2.423 0.006
5.332 2.424 0.005
5.284 2.424 0.004
5.236 2.424 0.004

Aᵀ
2.407 2.414 2.418
0.013 0.011 0.010

FMᵀ
1 1 1
0.0111 0.0083 0.0066

C*Aᵀ
-0.0446 -0.0129 0.0083
15.1767 8.9679 4.6851

σ(a0) 0.195763154
σ(a1) 33.12376027

ycalc+σy Aa
3.5744 5.797
3.0151 6.530
2.7558 6.410
2.6068 6.196
2.5137 6.021
2.4477 5.879
2.4072 5.788
2.3672 5.693
2.3356 5.615
2.2966 5.517
2.2658 5.438
2.2429 5.378
2.2202 5.318
2.2127 5.298
 ycalc

ycalc+σy

ycalc-σy

17 0.019
1/Nrep
 0.0166
0.0111
0.0083
0.0066
0.0055
0.0047
0.0042
0.0037
0.0033
0.0028
0.0024
0.0021
0.0018
0.0017

error can be considered arbitrary for plotting reasonably visible error curves
us the assumed random error value.
rministic part is assumed below**

k 8.557041596E-10
0 1 -2 -1
1 1 1 1
2.420 2.421 2.423 2.423 2.424 2.424
0.009 0.008 0.007 0.006 0.005 0.004

FMᵀ
1 1 1 1 1 1
0.0055 0.0047 0.0042 0.0037 0.0033 0.0028

C*Aᵀ
0.0223 0.0326 0.0390 0.0455 0.0506 0.0570
1.8147 -0.2986 -1.6256 -2.9547 -4.0189 -5.3501

δao ±0.1958
δa1 ±33.124

b-Aa
-0.1281 -0.1281 0.0264 -0.0351
0.0264
-0.0351
0.2066
0.0434
0.0594
0.0392
0.0189
-0.0216
-0.0419
-0.0582
-0.0462
-0.0341
-0.0624
1
1
2
1
2.424
0.004

1 1 1 1
0.0024 0.0021 0.0018 0.0017

0.0622 0.0660 0.0699 0.0711

-6.4151 -7.2135 -8.0119 -8.2783

(b-Aa)ᵀ
0.2066 0.0434 0.0594 0.0392 0.0189 -0.0216 -0.0419 -0.0582 -0.0462
-0.03414 -0.06245
Q (mᶟ/s) ΔHm (m)
1.67E-05 0.008
2.50E-05 0.016
3.33E-05 0.026
4.17E-05 0.04
5.00E-05 0.054
5.83E-05 0.072
6.67E-05 0.092
7.50E-05 0.114
8.33E-05 0.138
1.00E-04 0.194
1.17E-04 0.26
1.33E-04 0.336
1.50E-04 0.422
1.67E-04 0.516