Reviewer in Science

MATTER
 Composed of:
 Atoms
 Molecules
 Classified into:
 Elements
 Compounds
 Categorized into:
 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas
 Plasma
 Bose-Einstein Condensate

Mass and Volume

Mass is the amount of matter (kg)
Volume is the amount of space (l)

States of Matter
 Based on:
 Particle arrangement
 Energy of particles
 Distance between particles
Solid
 Particles are tightly packed, vibrating about a fixed position.
 Definite shape and volume.
 Not easily compressible because there is little free space between particles.
 Do not flow easily because the particles cannot move/slide past one another.
Liquid
 Particles are tightly packed, but are far enough apart to slide over one another.
 Indefinite shape, definite volume.
 Not easily compressible and have a definite volume because there is little free space
between particles.
 Flow easily because the particles can move/slide past one another.
Gas
 Particles are very far apart and move freely.
 Indefinite shape and volume
 Easily compressible because there is a great deal of free space between particles.
 Flow very easily because the particles randomly move past one another.
Plasma
 Ionized gas (charged)
 Very good conductor of electricity
 Indefinite shape and volume
 Common state of matter
 Best example → sun
Bose-Einstein Condensate
 Present in super-conductor, super fluid.

Kinetic Theory of Matter

Matter is made up of particles which are in continual random motion.

Phase Changes
Solid to Liquid → Melting Liquid to Solid → Freezing
Liquid to Gas → Vaporization Gas to Liquid → Condensation
Solid to Gas → Sublimation Gas to Solid → Deposition

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Physical Properties (specific).
 A change that affects one or more physical properties of a substance.
 Do not form new substances and can often be undone.
 Ex. Butter on counter can be placed back in refrigerator.

Density
 Amount of mass in a given volume.
  Substance is always the same at a given pressure and temperature regardless of the size of
the sample of the substance.
 Density of one substance is usually different from that of another substance.
 D= m/v
Malleability
 Ability to be pounded into thin sheets.
 Ex. Aluminum can be rolled or pounded into sheets to make foil.
Ductility
 Ability to be drawn or pulled into a wire.
 Ex. Copper in wiring – soldering wires or joints
Solubility
 Ability to dissolve in another substance.
 Ex. Sugar or salt dissolve in water
 Three ways to increase solubility:
 Heat or make warmer
 Grind or smash
 Stir or mix
Thermal Conductivity
 The ability to transfer thermal energy from one area to another.
 Ex. Plastic foam is a poor conductor, so a hot drink won’t burn your hand.

General Properties
Hardness/Softness
Odor
Taste
Viscosity- liquid's resistance to flow
Volatility- describes how readily a substance vaporizes.

Chemical Properties
 Describes a substance based on its ability to change into a new substance with different
properties.
 Can be observed with the 5 senses but not as easy to observe as physical properties.
  Can Not change back under normal conditions (some can be changed back by other
chemical means).
 Ex. Flammability – Only when wood burns → sustaining fire
Combustibility – Only when fireworks explode → catches fire
Reactivity – Only when iron Oxidizes (rust) → acids, bases, oxidation
5 signs of Chemical Change
1. Odor Production- an odor far different from what it should smell like.
- Ex. Rotting eggs, food in fridge, decomposing flesh
2. Change in Temperature
- Exothermic- energy is released do during the chemical change (out)
- ex: wood burning
- Endothermic- energy is absorbed causing a decrease in temperature
(in)
- ex. cold pack in first aid kit
3. Change in Color- ex. Fruit changing color when it ripens, dying your hair
4. Formation of Bubbles- this can indicate the presence of a gas. Bubbles produced when
boiling water is not a chemical change.
5. Formation of a Precipitate- when two liquids are combined and a solid is produced.

SUBSTANCES
Pure Substance
 Can stand alone.
 Chemically combined and can separate chemically.
 Elements- composed of only 1 atom.
 Compound- composed of 2 or more atoms.
o Monatomic- 1 atom
o Diatomic- 2 atoms
o Polyatomic- 3 or more atoms

Mixed/Mixture
 Homogenous- one phase.
o Solution
 Solute
 Solvent
 o Colloids- special type
 Heterogenous- 2 phases, physically combined.
o Suspension

ATOMS
 Smallest unit of matter that cannot be broken down by chemical means.
Models of the Atom
Democritus
 Matter is composed of atoms, which move through empty space
 Indestructible and Indivisible
Aristotle
 Empty space cannot exist

fire John Dalton

earth air  All substances are made

atoms which are small particles
up of
that

 water cannot be created, divided, or destroyed.

Atoms of the same element are exactly alike and atoms of
different elements are different.
 Atoms join with other atoms to form different substances.
o Law of Conservation of Mass
- Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
o Law of Definite Proportions

- Joseph Louis Proust

-different samples of p.s. contain the same elements.
o Law of Multiple Proportions
- mass of one element that can combine with a fixed mass of another element is in a
ratio of small whole numbers.
o Dalton's Model of Atom (1808)
 - matter consists of indivisible atom
-atoms arrange in different combinations to take different compounds
J.J. Thomson
 Made smaller negatively-charged particles called electrons.

Plum Pudding Model (1904)

J.J. Thompson
Ernest Rutherford
 Positively charged particles were contained in the nucleus and the negatively charged
particles were scattered.

Nuclear Model (1911)

Ernest Rutherford
Neil Bohr
 Electrons move in definite orbits around the nucleus.

Bohr Model
(1913)
Niels Bohr
Erwin Schröndinger
Quantum Mechanical Model (1920s)
Erwin Schröndinger
Quantum Mechanical Model with Protons and
Neutrons
Protons: Ernest Rutherford (1919)
Neutrons: James Chadwick (1932)

Ernest Rutherford
 JJ Thomson

James Chadwick
Isotopes
One of two or more species of atoms
of a chemical element with the same
atomic number and position in the
periodic table and nearly identical
chemical behavior but with different
atomic masses and physical
properties.

Importance of Isotopes
 Food Preservation
 Carbon Dating
 Disease Diagnosis and Treatment

ELEMENTS
Pauli Exclusion Principle
 No two electrons have the same four quantum numbers
S=2
P=6
D=10
F=14
Hund’s Rule
 More than one equivalent orbital available; they will half-fill each of the equivalent
orbitals before filling the second half of each.
Arrangement of Electrons (Aufbau Principle)
 Increasing energy
John Alexander Reina Newland (1864)
  Law of octaves, the elements are arranged according
to increasing atomic weights
Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner (1817)
 Grouped the elements by three.
Dimitri Mendeleev and Julius Lother
 Grouped the elements by increasing atomic mass.
Henry G.J Moseley
 Grouped the elements by increasing atomic number.
TRENDS
Periodic Table
Groups Periods
-Increasing atomic size -Increasing electronegativity
- Decreasing Ionization energy
Electronegativity Increases
Electronegativity Decreases

-Decreasing atomic size

and electron affinity

Atomic Size
 Left to right- decreases
 Top-bottom- increases

Ionic Size
 Cation- loses energy, smaller
 Anion- gains energy, larger
Ionization Energy
 Energy required to remove an electron from an atom.
 LR- increases
 TB- decreases
Electron Affinity
  Amount of energy
released or absorbed; to
form a negative ion.
 LR- increases
 TB- decreases
Electronegativity
 The ability of an atom
to attract toward itself the
electrons in a chemical
bond.
 LR- increases
 TB- decreases

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Function of Digestive System
 Ingest food
 Break down food into nutrient molecules
 Absorb molecules into the bloodstream
 Eliminate indigestible remains

Digestive Process
 1. Ingestion- process of taking food into the digestive system.
2. Digestion- breakdown of food in order to utilize nutrients.
3. Absorption- nutrients molecules from the food pass through the wall of digestive system
into your blood (circulatory).
4. Elimination- some substances that is not absorbed is eliminated through feces.

mouth stomach
break up food kills germs
digest starch break up food
kill germs digest proteins
moisten food store food

liver
produces bile
- stored in gall bladder small intestines
break up fats breakdown food
- proteins
appendix
The pulpy - starch
acidic fluid which large intestines - fats
absorb water absorb nutrients
pancreas
produces enzymes to
digest proteins & carbs
 passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting
chyme
of gastric juices and partly digested food.

Any of the fingerlike or threadlike projections from the

surface of certain membranous structures, typically
serving to increase surface area
villiand facilitate the passage
of fluid or nutrients. (singular: villus)

Accessory Organs

NUTRIENTS
 Molecules in the food that nourish the body.
Carbohydrates
 Formation of nucleic acid.
 Synthesis of lubricants such as
mucus
 Can be converted in
other organic compounds such as amino acids and fats
Proteins
 Essential for the formation of new protoplasm for growth and repair of worn-out body
cells
 Synthesis of enzymes, hormones and antibodies.
Fats
 Provides twice energy per gram as carbohydrates.
Vitamins
 Cannot be manufactured by our body
 Fat-soluble vitamins, can be stored in the fats of
the body.
 Water-soluble vitamins, cannot be stored in the
body and must be supplied in the daily diet.
Minerals Water
Fiber/Roughage
 Made up of cellulose
 Provide bulk to intestinal contents and helps peristalsis

CELL DIVISION

Rudolf Virchow; Cell Theory

“cells come from pre- existing cells”
formation of two new identical daughter cell
Cellular Reproduction
 Cellular Growth and Maturation
 Cell division