PHYSICAL SCIENCE–MIDTERM REVIEWER

Lesson 4: Biomolecules

Carbohydrate
- one of the four major classes of biologically essential organic molecules found in
all living things – lipids, proteins and nucleic acid
- most abundant class of organic compound found in living things
- Include sugars, starches, cellulose and many other compounds in organisms
- general formula of Cn(H2O)n formed from physiological processes in plants or
animals or decomposed (broken) into other carbohydrates

- Glucose molecules forms larger cellulose or starch in plants (stored in

- seeds)
- Animals and humans consume cellulose or starch and is broken down into glucose
which serve as source of energy
Function of Carbohydrates
a. Substrate for respiration or source of energy
b. Intermediate substances in respiration (glyceraldehydes)
c. Energy storage (Starch and glycogen)
d. Structure (chitin)
e. Transport (Sucrose in phloem)
f. Recognition of molecules that pass through the cell membrane

Classification of Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharides or Simple Sugar
- General formula is CnH2nO n where n is 1, 2, 3 ... .
- they are the simplest form of sugar and are usually colorless , water-soluble
and crystalline solids.
- Some monosaccharides have a sweet taste. Examples of monosaccharides
include glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose) and galactose.
- Monosaccharides are the building blocks of disaccharides (such as
sucrose and lactose) and polysaccharides (such as cellulose and starch).

2. Oligosaccharides
- formed by short chains of monosaccharidic units (from 2 to 20) linked one
to the next by chemical bounds, called glycosidic bonds.
- formed from condensation (removal of water molecule) or hydrolysis
(addition of water molecules)

3. Polysaccharide
- polymers consisting of 20 to 107 monosaccharidic units; they differ
each other for the monosaccharide recurring in the structure, for the
length and the degree of branching of chains or for the type of links
between units.
Protein
- One of the four biomolecules that all living things are made up of
- Long chain of building block molecules called amino acids

2 Kinds of Protein
- Fibrous proteins - insoluble in water; main components of the body: -ex.
Collagen, actin, keratin
- Globular proteins – soluble in water; used for the other no-structura purposes of
proteins: -ex. Albumin, hemoglobin

FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN
1. Structure
2. Hormones
3. Transport
4. Storage
5. Catalysts
6. Protection
7. Movement
8. Regulation

Amino Acids
- Organic Compounds That Make Up Each Protein Chain
- Made Up A Carboxyl Group, Amino Group, A Hydrogen And A R (Functional
Group)
Classification of Amino Acids
- Essential amino acids – needed by the body but the body cannot synthesize
- Get them from food; 10 essential amino acids
- Non- essential amino acids - our cells can produced them
- Non- essential amino acids

Level of Structure of Amino Acids

1. Primary – arrangement or order of the amino acids in the protein chain
2. Secondary – held together by a hydrogen chain
- x-helix structure or pleated
3. Tertiary – interactions between the R group fold and bend the polypeptide chain-
folded
4. Quarternary – arrangement of two or more interacting polypeptide chains
-conjugated.

Denaturing of Protein
- A change in acidity, high temperatures, some solvents and even the presence of
other molecules can alter the forces and bonds of a protein.
- Example: When an egg is put on a hot frying pan, the protein in the clear egg
whites turns a solid white.

Nucleic Acid
- One Of The Four Large Biomolecules That All Living Things Needed By The
Body.
- Its Function Is Linked To Heredity And Catalysts.
- Macromolecules Are Made From Monomers Known As Nucleotides.

Nucleotides
- Are organic molecules that serve as themonomers, or subunits, of nucleic acids
like DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).
- The building blocks of nucleic acids, nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous
base, a five-carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and at least one phosphate
group.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid
- involved in information carrying
- replication of parent cells for basis in the biological inheritance
- contains the genetic information from which protein must be produced
- facilitates in the activates of the organisms
- DNA strands are held together by a hydrogen bond between the nitrogen bases

Base pairing; complementary bases;

Adenine to thymine
cytosine to guanine

RNA
Rybonuclei Acid
- role is to act as a messenger carrying instructions from DNA for controlling the
synthesis of proteins
- Messenger or for expression of genes

Base pairing; complementary bases;

Adenine to uracil
cytosine to guanine

MUTATION
- the changing of the structure of a gene, resulting in a variant form that may be
transmitted to subsequent generations, caused by the alteration of single base units
in DNA, or the deletion, insertion, or rearrangement of larger sections of genes or
chromosomes.

Lipids
- Any of a class of organic compounds that are fatty acids or their derivatives and
are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
- They include many natural oils, waxes, and steroids.
FUNCTIONS
● Source of energy (Fats- 9kcal per gram)
● Energy storage
● Cell membrane and component
● Protection and insulation
● Digestion and absorption

Structure of Fatty Acids

- Glycerol and fatty acids are the basic building blocks of fats (lipids).
- Building blocks for triglycerides and phospholipids
- A chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms with a carboxyl group at the alpha end and
a methyl group at the omega end

Fatty Acid Vary in Length

Short-chain fatty acids

- 2 to 4 carbons
- Weak attraction
- Liquid at room temperature

Medium-Chain Fatty Acid

- 6-10 Carbon

Long Chain of fatty Acid

- 12 or more carbons
 - Most common type of fatty acid in foods
- Strong attraction
- Solid at room temperature

Fatty Acids Vary in Saturation

Saturated
- All the carbons on the fatty acid are bound to hydrogen
- Solid at room temperature
- Higher melting point

Unsaturated
- Some carbons on fatty acid form a double bond with each other instead of binding
to hydrogen
- Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA)
- Has one double bond
- Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)
- Has two or more double bonds
- Liquid at room temperature
- Lower melting point
 Lesson 5: Chemical Reaction, Equation, and Collision Theory

Chemical Reaction
- refers to a process in which atoms of the same or different elements rearrange
themselves to form a new substance

Indicators of Chemical Reaction

a. Color changes
b. Temperature change
c. Emission of light
d. Evolution of gas
e. precipitation forms
- precipitate is an insoluble substance that settles at the bottom of the
container
f. Change in voltage

Chemical reaction can be represented by a chemical equation

- consists of symbols and formulas of the reacting substances and their products

Types of Chemical Reactions

1. Combination Reaction
- Involves 2 or more reactants elements or compounds that form more
complex substance
- Also known synthesis.
 2. Decomposition Reactiom
- Compound is broken into its component elements or into simpler
compounds
- Also known analysis

3. Single Replacement Rxn

- Two compounds exchange metallic ions to form two new compounds
- Also known substitution

4. Double Replacement Rxn

- Two compounds exchange metallic ions to form two new compounds
- Changing partners
- Also known double substitution

Chemical reaction
- is a process in which one or more substances, the reactants, are converted to one or
more different substances, the products.
- A chemical reaction rearranges the constituent atoms of the reactants to create
different substances as products
Rate of Reaction
- Refers to the speed at which reactants decompose or combine to form new
substance

Collision theory – there are two conditions to be met to effect a reaction

- Colliding particles should fit the geometric orientation
- There must be sufficient energy to break the bonds

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
- happens when the reaction is reversible
- Reaction does not go to completion because the products of the forward reaction
are immediately used by the backward reaction

The rate of forward reaction = rate of backward reaction

Endothermic Reaction
- An endothermic reaction is any chemical reaction that absorbs heat from its
environment. The absorbed energy provides the activation energy for the reaction
to occur. A hallmark of this type of reaction is that it feels cold.
- Heat Absorption

Exothermic Reaction
- an exothermic reaction is a reaction in which energy is released in the form of light or
heat. Thus in an exothermic reaction, energy is transferred into the surroundings rather
than taking energy from the surroundings as in an endothermic reaction.
- Release of Heat Energy
 Lesson 6: Stoichiometry

What is Relative atomic mass?

- Is the consolidated average masses of the naturally existing isotopes relative to the
mass of an element.

Ions
An ion is an atom or molecule that has a net electrical charge. Atoms or
molecules that have zero net charge have the same number of protons and electrons so
when there’s fewer electrons or protons that the other the atom or molecule becomes
positively(cation) or negatively (anion) charged.

Molecules
A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by
chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from ions by their lack of electrical charge.

Law of Conservation Mass

The law of conservation of mass states that in a chemical reaction mass is neither
created nor destroyed. For example, the carbon atom in coal becomes carbon dioxide
when it is burned. The carbon atom changes from a solid structure to a gas but its mass
does not change.

Chemical Equations
Concise representation of chemical reactions.

Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry came from the greek word “Stochio” which means “Elements and
“metry” which means measurement. Simply, Stoichiometry is about measuring the
amounts of elements and compounds involved in a chemical reaction.

Two ways of representing Chemical Formula

1. Molecular Formula of a compund

- denotes the exact number of atoms present in a molecule
 2. Empirical formula
- does not provide the exact numbers of atoms composing the molecule but
rather the type of atoms and their simplest whole-number ratio.

In Chemistry, there is a standard scientific measuring unit use to count the number of
particles such as atoms, ions, formula units or molecules. It is called mole. Mole which
is also spelled as mol.

Molar Mass
Molar mass (WEIGHT) of a chemical compound is defined as the mass of a
sample of that compound divided by the amount of substance in that sample, measured
in moles.
 Lesson 7: Force and Motion

Force and Motion

Motion is when an object moves from one place to another

Force is what causes an object to move or to stop moving

For examples of force:

- the kick (force) that causes a ball to move across the field (motion)
- the gravity (force) that slows and eventually stops that ball from moving

A newton (N) is the international unit of measure for force. One newton is equal to
1-kilogram meter per second squared. In plain English, 1 newton of force is the force
required to accelerate an object with a mass of 1 kilogram 1 meter per second per second.
Types of Force

Types of Force in Mechanical Systems

A. Normal Force
- Is the support force exerted upon an object which is in contact with another
stable object
B. Frictional Force
- The opposing force, which acts in opposite directions of the movement of
the upper body is called FRICTION FORCE.
C. Tension
- The pulling force, it stretches materials.
D. Weight

Net force
- Is the vector sum of all the forces that act on a body

Motion
- Motion is when an object changes place from one position to another.
Newton’s Law of Motion
A. First Law of Motion ( Law of Inertia)
- States that an object at rest will remain at rest and an object in motion
will stay in motion unless acted upon by an outside force.
 B. Second Law of Motion (Law of Acceleration)
- Newton's second law states that the acceleration of an object is directly
related to the net force and inversely related to its mass. Acceleration of an
object depends on two things, force and mass.

Standard Formula:
F=ma

C. Third Law of Motion (For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.)
- The statement means that in every interaction, there is a pair of forces
acting on the two interacting objects. The size of the forces on the first
object equals the size of the force on the second object.