ESCAP Environment Statistics Course: Chapter 3 Air Draft January 2000 I

ESCAP environment statistics course
CHAPTER 3
AIR
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................ i

LIST OF TABLE & FIGURES ................................................................................................iii
DIDACTIC REMARKS ........................................................................................................... iv
1. GENERAL.........................................................................................................................1
2. ACTIVITIES AND EMISSIONS......................................................................................3

2.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................3
2.2 Emission sources............................................................................................................4
2.2.1 General...................................................................................................................4
2.2.2 Types of emission sources .....................................................................................4
2.2.3 Energy: general trends ...........................................................................................6
2.2.4 General concluding remarks ..................................................................................7
2.3 Major air pollutants: properties, sources and effects .....................................................8
2.4 Emission control ...........................................................................................................8
3. AIR QUALITY................................................................................................................10
3.1 general..........................................................................................................................10
3.2 Air quality standards ....................................................................................................11
3.3 Air quality monitoring .................................................................................................12
3.3.1 General.................................................................................................................13
3.3.2 Air quality monitoring .........................................................................................14
3.4 effects: Exposure..........................................................................................................14
3.5 Regional and global air pollution.................................................................................15
3.5.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................15
3.5.2 Acid deposition....................................................................................................15
3.5.3 Global issues: the role of IPCC............................................................................16
3.5.4 Greenhouse effect ................................................................................................16
3.5.5 Ozone depletion ...................................................................................................17
4. ROLE OF THE NSS; SCOPE OF ASSESSMENT.........................................................18

4.1 Role of the National Statistical Service .......................................................................18
4.2 Scope of assessment.....................................................................................................19
5. ESTIMATION METHODOLOGY FOR AIR EMISSIONS ..........................................20

5.1 statistics general...........................................................................................................20
5.1.1 Variables ..............................................................................................................20
5.1.2 Methodology general ...........................................................................................20
5.1.3 Possible problems with air pollution data ............................................................21
Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page i

5.2 Combustion of fossil fuels ...........................................................................................22

5.3 Process emissions .........................................................................................................23
5.4 Mobile source emissions ..............................................................................................25
5.5 Emission inventories....................................................................................................28
6. AIR QUALITY STATISTICS.........................................................................................29

6.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................29
6.2 Variables ......................................................................................................................29
6.3 Conventions recommended for air quality data ...........................................................31
6.3.1 General ................................................................................................................31
6.3.2 Statistical conventions ..........................................................................................32
6.4 Standards ......................................................................................................................32
6.5 Sources of air quality data............................................................................................32
6.6 Deposition....................................................................................................................33
6.7 Integration of data & modelling...................................................................................35
7. ENVIRONMENTAL EXPENDITURES ........................................................................36
8. CONTENTS OF DATABASE AND PUBLICATION...................................................37

8.1 General.........................................................................................................................37
8.2 Technical and background data....................................................................................37
8.3 suggestions for output ..................................................................................................38
8.3.1 Data presentation for air emissions ......................................................................38
8.3.2 Data presentation for air quality...........................................................................39
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................41
ANNEXES ...............................................................................................................................43
Annex 1 Major air pollutants ..............................................................................................43
Annex 2 Emission control ..................................................................................................46
2.1 Pre-combustion techniques ......................................................................................46
2.2 Combustion modification.........................................................................................46
2.3 Post-combustion control ..........................................................................................46
2.4 New processes..........................................................................................................47
2.5 Energy conservation.................................................................................................47
Annex 3 Indoor air pollution .............................................................................................47
3.1 General.....................................................................................................................47
3.2 Sources and consequences of indoor air pollution...................................................48
Annex 4 current monitoring programmes...........................................................................50
4.1 National....................................................................................................................50
4.2 International .............................................................................................................51
4.3 Some data on air pollution.......................................................................................51
Annex 5 Emission surveys: some elements........................................................................53
5.1 Survey for production units .....................................................................................53
5.2 Car user panel...........................................................................................................53
Annex 6 OECD questionnaire ............................................................................................54
Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page ii

LIST OF TABLE & FIGURES
Figure 1. Relationship of various components of air pollution ..................................................1

Table 2. Main elements of an air pollution control programme ................................................2
Table 3. General PSR framework of air pollution statistics .......................................................2
Table 4. Number of motor vehicles ............................................................................................6
Figure 5. Total commercial primary energy consumption in the world .....................................7
Table 6. Summary of WHO air quality guidelines ...................................................................12
Figure 7. Actors in recording air pollution issues .....................................................................19
Table 8. Main methodological tools for various types of air emissions ...................................21
BOX: Example of the calculation of industrial emissions ........................................................22
Table 9. Industrial emissions loads in Dhaka city, Bangladesh................................................23
Table 10. Core list of special compounds for consideration in an air emission inventory.......24
Figure 11. Parameters for the calculation of traffic emissions .................................................26
BOX: An example of the estimation of vehicular emissions....................................................27
Table 12. Comparison of two estimation methods for average vehicular emissions in ...............
Dhaka........................................................................................................................27
Table 13. Variables and their relevance in quality and emission statistics...............................30
Table 14. Air quality variables, according to type of station....................................................31
Table 15. Sources of air quality data.........................................................................................33
Table 16. Wet acidifying depositions .......................................................................................34
Table 17. Potential acid equivalents of some air pollutants......................................................34
Example Table 18. Generalised table for air emissions...........................................................39
Example Table 19. Air pollution data for area Y......................................................................40
Figure A.1.1. SOx emissions, 1970-1986..................................................................................43
Figure A.1.2. NOx emissions, 1970-86 .....................................................................................44
Table A.3.1. Sources of indoor and outdoor pollutants ............................................................48
Table A.3.2. Air pollution concentrations indoor and elsewhere .............................................49
Figure A.4.1. Capabilities of megacities for air quality monitoring .........................................50
Figure A.4.2. Emission of major air pollutants from man- made sources .................................51
Figure A.4.3. Contribution to global greenhouse gases emissions by OECD and other
countries .............................................................................................................52
Figure A.4.4 Overview of air quality in twenty megacities.....................................................52
Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page iii

DIDACTIC REMARKS
Lecture 1:
This chapter discusses the specific features of air pollution statistics. In the PSR scheme: emissions,
quality and expenditures. Fig. 1 may be used to illustrate this point.
Section 2 is about the general background. What are the sources? Main pollutants? Emission control
methods? An understanding of types of sources is important as a preparation to section 5 (Estimation
methods for emissions). The link to energy in general (and energy statistics) is important, because the
latter provide basic data for emission computations (with emission factors) and for cross-referencing
emission data.
One should not dwell to long on pollutants (Annex 1). A list of the main types and some general
explanation should suffice (differences between countries mainly due to climate, energy carriers used,
urbanisation, specific process emissions). Emission controls might best be illustrated with one or more
examples (Annex 2).
Lecture 2:
On section 5 (Methodology for emissions). 5.1 lists some general problems with this type of data.
The two most important types of emissions, industry (including energy plants) and traffic are treated
in some detail. Especially simplified approaches deserve attention (supplied in the boxes). It is
recommended to start with macro-emissions; therefore process emissions are less suitable (unless
great quantities are emitted in a small area. But even then, this seems a matter for the EPA).
EXERCISE: The examples from Bangladesh (Industrial and Vehicular emissions) seem quite
suitable for a step-by-step plenary treatment. That is, the general situation is stated, and then some of
the crucial decisions and simplifications are first discussed (What would you do?) before the solution
chosen is disclosed. It may be expected that this approach will be more effective in raising awareness
to simplified, but effective methods than by just presenting in a one-way fashion) the method
employed. Alternatives suggested by participants might be listed on a flip-over sheet.
Lecture 3: Quality.Special attention is required for indoor air pollution, not so much for the emission
quantities, as the effects (Its discussion might be delayed to section 3.4). Some words need to be said
about standards (Table 9.), especially the difference between peak and long term means. The
discussion of monitoring might be profitably linked to 6.3. Particularly the (limited) possibilities to
generalise data deserve due attention. Section 3.5 offers the possibility to discuss the geographic scale
of air pollution (local ßà global). Section 6.6 might be skipped in favour of 6.7 (integration).
Expenditures may be skipped (because discussed in module 4). If discussed, only expenditures on
what should be pointed out.
The discussion of section 8 (database & publication) might tap the experiences of the participants.
That is, some actual experiences might be discussed. Alternatively, some tables and graphs from
actual Compendia may be shown.
Annexes 5 and 6 are not meant for plenary discussion.
Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page iv

CHAPTER 3
AIR
1. GENERAL
Air pollution is an ubiquitous and complex problem. Its impact ranges from street level to the
stratosphere, and sustainable measures require substantial changes in our production and consumption
habits. This chapter aims at covering several important aspects of air pollution: emissions, the ensuing
concentrations, and the costs of measures to monitor and bring down concentrations and emissions.
Figure 1 summarises the relationship of the different components of the air pollution process.
Figure 1. Relationship of various components of air pollution
activities à emissions à [dispersion] à concentration à deposition
effects effects
responses
Air pollution arises from a number of sources. The actual concentration of air pollutants is not only
depending on the quantities emitted, but also on the capacity of the atmosphere to either absorb or
disperse the emissions. According to UNEP/WHO (1992), the basic requirements for an effective air
pollution control monitoring programme (and hence a statistical programme) are:
- The accuracy and the completeness of emissions data records (emission inventories);
- The coverage, representativeness and quality of the monitoring data;
- The extent to which exposures of the population to air pollution can be inferred from the
monitoring data.
Table 2. summarises the requirements just mentioned.
Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page 1

Table 2. Main elements of an air pollution control programme

Stage Method
Emissions Emission inventory; models
Concentration Monitoring network; models
Exposure Exposure data; models
Source: After UNEP/WHO (1992).
Emissions may be either man-made or natural (e.g. CH4 from wetlands, CO2 from decay processes,
wind blown dust in arid areas, volcanic emissions of SPM and SO 2 ). Dispersion is the process by
which emissions are dispersed from the source. Wind is the main agent. Away from the source
concentrations rapidly go down. Substances may change or disappear by chemical reactions
Substances may also adhere to SPM, and thus be deposited due to gravitation, rain, or interception by
the roughness of the earth’s surface (like trees and mountains). Deposition can be in a wet or dry
form. In the first case, substances are dissolved in or enclosed by water drops and fall to the earth. Dry
deposition is effected by gravitation and influenced by the roughness of the earth’s surface. Effects
can be many, and act on organisms (among which man), soil, water, and buildings. It should be noted
that air pollution abatement measures are rarely based on sound data on effects (exposure); rather,
they are based on concentrations (as a proxy of exposure) or emissions (in the case of major sources).
Table 3. gives an overview of the different elements of a framework for air pollution statistics,
patterned after the FDES Framework (United Nations, 1984).
Table 3. General PSR framework of air pollution statistics

Activities Section 2
Emissions Section 2 and Ch. Emission general
Concentrations Section 3
Depositions Section 3.5.2
Impacts Section 3.4 and 3.5
Responses
Emission prevention/reduction Annex 2
Monitoring
Annex 4
Costs
Section 7

2. ACTIVITIES AND EMISSIONS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Air emissions 1 can be defined as (mostly gaseous) compounds that, once released into ambient air, are
either harmful as such to human, animal or plant life, or act as precursors to ozone, smog and the
acidification of precipitation, and other effects. Emissions are removed from the atmosphere either
through the action of gravity or physico-chemical processes. Generally, CO2 is included in the list of air
pollutants, as it contributes to an increase in the concentration of "greenhouse gas" in the atmosphere,
which may lead to global climate changes. 2
Natural emissions (i.e. emissions not directly attributable to human activities) into air are now receiving
more attention, as they may contribute to ozone depletion and the greenhouse effect. Examples of natural
emissions are NO x, CH4 and CO 2. Although natural air emissions cannot always be abated (e.g. CH4
emissions from wet rice fields or CO2 from forest clearing), knowledge of the amounts released is
important for assessing their relative importance in relation to emissions from human activities. More
details can be found in IPCC (1995).
For air emissions, temporal variations can be quite distinct. In general, the more pronounced temperature
variations are over the year, the more air emission intensity will vary. For example, during the cold
season, space heating will cause additional air emissions, especially when low quality fuels (like sulphur-
rich coal) are used. This phenomenon might be partly offset by a low level of activities - and thus
emissions - in both the agricultural and agro-industrial sectors. The unfavourable conditions in the cold
season may be exacerbated by episodic spells of stagnant weather (e.g. inversion) with fog; under these
conditions, cold air may remain stagnant for prolonged periods at ground level. Thus, air pollutants get
trapped in a restricted area, and high air pollution concentrations may build up. Such conditions may give
rise to winter smog, mainly due to sulphur dioxide.
In contrast, during the hot season, NOx and VOC may, under the influence of ultraviolet radiation in
sunlight, give rise to summer smog, through the production of highly reactive ozone. Car exhaust and the
evaporation of transportation fuels are usually the main sources. Further, the use of air conditioners may
cause a sharp rise in electricity demand, in its turn leading to an increase of air emissions, depending on
the fuel used in the power plant.
Many studies dealing with air emissions discuss their sources; often, the sources are even categorised.
When it comes to data, however, more often than not only air quality data are cited. For the
establishment of a meaningful system of air emission statistics, attention to both emission sources and
ensuing air quality is called for. When the actual readings for certain air quality parameters exceed air
quality standards, the environmental managers and decision makers should be able to go back to the
sources of the emissions, and thus to the major contributors. Only with information on both air emissions
and air quality at hand can realistic measures to mitigate emissions be crafted and carried out. Refer to
Figure 1. above for the various aspects of air pollution and their relation.
1
For statistical purposes, the neutral term "emission" seems preferable to "pollution", as the latter word constitutes an
interpretation of the impact of substances released into the environment. Moreover, in this Manual “pollution” is used to
designate emissions plus ensuing quality.
2
However, calling CO2 a pollutant, would be stretching the meaning of the term to its boundaries , as it is not
harmful in itself, and does not act as a precursor to other directly harmful substances.

2.2 EMISSION SOURCES
2.2.1 General
An important practical distinction has to be drawn between emissions of compounds released in great
quantities over an area or country, and those which - although they may be locally released in
considerable quantities - are released only in modest to insignificant quantities on a countrywide basis.
The first type of emissions are usually referred to as macro-emissions, in contrast to the second type,
micro-emissions. Micro-emissions are mainly released via process emissions (see below). Some of them
are hazardous. This means that the relatively small amount of emission may be offset by its possible
detrimental environmental effects. Thus, in an emission inventory, sheer amounts should not be the sole
criterion to include compounds or not. Of special concern should be compounds that are toxic,
carcinogenic or whose concentrations tend to build up in the environment or organisms through the
process of bio-accumulation.
Macro-pollutants
Both anthropogenic and natural sources of air pollution are responsible for the deterioration of air quality
in both rural and urban areas. Natural sources are e.g. SO 2 from microbial and volcanic activity; NOx
from lightning, forest fires, volcanic processes and microbial processes in soil; SPM from wind-blown
dust and pollen. Understandably, man-made air pollutants are found more abundantly in urban or
industrial areas than in the countryside. Many airborne pollutants can be attributed to the rapid increase
and reach of human activities. The most common and important air pollutants (or macro-pollutants) from
stationary and mobile sources are associated with fossil fuel burning: sulphur dioxide (SO 2), nitrogen
oxides (NO x), carbon monoxide (CO), suspended particulate matter (SPM) and volatile organic carbons
(VOCs).
Micro-pollutants
Depending upon the nature and extent of specific industrial production processes in a particular country,
other airborne pollutants might be important. They are mainly generated as process emissions. Though
their quantity may be negligible in comparison to macro-pollutant emissions, they may still strongly
affect local air quality, apart from their possible toxic impacts.
During the past two decades, more than 250 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have been identified in
ambient air quality studies. Although their concentrations in most cases are very low, some of them can
be highly reactive and may therefore have adverse effects on ecosystems and human beings (Tolba, 1992;
Shah and Singh, 1988). Similarly, trace metals, with properties harmful to human health, have also been
detected in ambient air. Of these metals (e.g. mercury, cadmium, copper, zinc and lead), lead is the most
important and has been extensively studied. Around 80-90% of lead in air comes from the combustion of
leaded petrol, where it is used as an anti-knocking agent in internal combustion engines (Tolba, 1992).
2.2.2 Types of emission sources
The principal sources of air emissions are generally classified into:
Stationary sources
- Combustion of fossil fuels (in industrial furnaces) for power and process heat.
- Industrial processes, involving the chemical and physical transformation of substances.
Mobile sources

- Combustion of fossil fuels to propel all means of passenger and freight transport.
Examples of the first category would be a coal-fired power plant or a gas-fired, combined
power/industrial process heat installation. For the second source category, the transformation of oil into
plastics, and that of iron ore into steel can be cited as examples. Under the second category, auxiliary
substances such as solvents used for surface cleaning are included as well. Mobile sources range from
passenger cars, lorries, farming equipment, trains, ships, to aeroplanes. Below, each of the three sources is
discussed in more detail.
a. Combustion of fossil fuels in stationary sources
The most important emissions in this category are SO 2 , NOx, SPM, CO, VOC, and CO2 . The origin
and fate of these emissions depend on fuel used, type of boiler, and level of sophistication of the
clean-up technology employed. For example, the use of coal and lignite typically leads to the emission
of SO 2 and SPM (the latter containing associated heavy metals). The amount of SO 2 released depends
on the sulphur content of the fuel. The SPM emitted will contain a high fraction of coarse and
carbonaceous particles. In contrast, natural gas is a relatively clean fuel; however, depending on the
type of burner, more or less NOx will be produced (partly from N contained in the fuel itself). High
temperature burners may produce large amounts of NOx, partially due to nitrogen from air. For this
reason, in modern, low NOx burners, flame temperature is controlled at a relatively low level.
For developing countries, the following stationary sources deserve special attention:
- Cooking (heating) fires, which often use inferior biomass fuels like dried dung cakes, wood,
chaff, etc. The absence of a chimney or proper ventilation makes it an important source of indoor
air pollution (see section 3.1 and Annex 3).
- Kerosene and petroleum lamps.
- Small-scale waste incineration in residential neighbourhoods and urban areas.
- Burning of agricultural residues and burning of fields.
b. Process emissions
A considerable part of process emissions consists of macro-pollutants as discussed under fossil fuels.
However, also a great variety of other substances is emitted – depending on the process. The sheer
variety of chemical compounds and products manufactured is overwhelming. Over 11 million
chemical substances are known; some 60,000 to 70,000 are in regular use, but only 3,000 account for
90% by mass of total use (UNEP, 1992). The variety of compounds thereby released into the
environment, more specifically into air, is enormous. And it is not only the marketable end products
that matter. In many production processes, supplementary substances (such as solvents) are used;
during production, intermediary products may be formed (e.g. vinyl monomer during PVC
production); unwanted compounds may be formed in varying degrees while end products may contain
polluting compounds. Actual air emissions in a country depend on its production structure, which may
show marked variations in the production processes utilised, even at a regional scale.
c. Motor vehicles
Motor vehicles are concentrated in the urban areas of most of the countries. The growth of the fleet can be
gleaned from table 4. Whereas factories can reduce direct impacts and high local concentrations by
dispersing their emissions through smoke stacks, vehicle exhaust is emitted at ground level. This fact,
combined with the forcibly long lifetime of vehicles (ageing vehicle fleet) in many of the countries, the

low quality of petrol and diesel fuel, 3 poor engine maintenance, and wasteful driving habits (e.g. abrupt
acceleration), all conspire to make vehicle exhaust the major cause of air pollution in urban areas, both in
quantity and impact on humans. Spatial congestion in these areas further compounds problems as it
gives rise to frequent braking and acceleration, and idle -running motors.
Airborne pollutants from motor vehicles include particulates (especially from diesel motors) sulphur
dioxide (mainly diesel), nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons (VOCs), and lead (tetraethyl
lead, TEL), used as an anti-engine knocking compound or octane enhancer in gasoline, and CO2 .
Table 4. Number of motor vehicles
Selected countries 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988

Insert data for
selected countries or
continents
Total
Source:
Although passenger cars and freight vehicles in most countries are the main sources of traffic
emissions, other mobile sources should not be neglected, such as:
- Trains using coal or diesel (Emissions for electric trains and trams are booked under power
plants);
- Air planes: kerosene (jet fuel) is used;
- Ships: mostly diesel; may be of low quality, and even mixed with spent oil.
2.2.3 Energy: general trends
As the use of fossil fuels for energy production, process heat, space-heating, and transport is the major
source of air pollution, the following section will discuss some aspects of fossil fuel use.
The main cause for the deterioration of air quality in the urban areas of the countries in the ESCAP region
is attributable to increases in industrial and manufacturing activities (involving a tremendous energy
demand) coupled with an exponential increase in the number of motor vehicles (see table 4) . The amount
of air pollutants released from these sources is dependent upon the amount of energy consumption, its
efficiency in energy use and the type of fuel utilised. From this perspective, the air quality trend in the
urbanising areas of this region has not been encouraging (ESCAP, 1995). Rapid economic growth rates
will entail even higher air pollution loads, unless effective management measures are instituted (ESCAP,
1989).
3
For example, a relatively high content of benzene and lead in petrol, and a relatively high sulphur content in diesel
fuel.

Figure 5. Total commercial primary energy consumption in the world
Page 312 [0,5 page]
Source: ESCAP (1990).
Some countries of the region show an increasing trend in solid fuels consumption (which generally yields
more pollutants per unit of energy than oil and gas). In China, for example, coal is increasingly used as a
cheap source of energy. In 1982, for example, around 459 million metric tonnes of coal (amounting to
74% of the total amount of energy used and producing 9.15 million tonnes of SO 2 ) were consumed in
China. Thus, coal has been a major contributor to air quality deterioration in the region. The increase in
energy consumption in the region, during the period 1965-1985, has been mirrored in the per capita
energy consumption increase in some of the region's countries. For example, energy consumption during
this period (in million kg oil equivalent) showed an increase from 91 to 219 in Indonesia, 80 to 343 in
Thailand, 321 to 826 in Malaysia and 670 to 2,175 in Singapore. The energy consumption figures imply
that air pollution loads in these countries have increased correspondingly.
2.2.4 General concluding remarks
An important reason for differentiating air emission sources into various categories is the statistical
methods used for calculating emissions (refer to section 5). For the first category, combustion of fossil
fuels in stationary sources, energy consumption is a key variable. Thus, energy statistics can be used as a
primary source to calculate emission data. For industrial processes, too many compounds are involved to
allow recourse on existing statistics. Emission registration may be an important input in this respect.
Furthermore, the use of emission factors will also play an important role. Road traffic, the most
important mobile source, typically poses a statistical puzzle, as it requires, next to energy statistics, many
more variables related to the engine output (such as driving mode) to compute reliable emission data.
Unlike water emissions, for statistical purposes no distinction is made between direct and indirect air
emissions. Generally, more attention is devoted to actual emissions into the atmosphere, rather than
to emission abatement or emissions avoided. The main reason is that air emissions do not lend
themselves to centralised treatment, as is the case for wastewater. Thus, air pollution abatement
techniques are linked to individual production units and processes, and are therefore less accessible
for statistical description. Knowledge of clean-up technologies is, however, of importance for
monitoring purposes and calc ulation of emissions.
A general description of air emission control strategies is provided in section 4. It should be noted
that for clean-up technologies, end-of-pipe treatment is still the most popular mode of emission
control, though other techniques are on the rise, especially those that combine energy-saving with a
more efficient use of raw materials. As the latter techniques tend to be more process-integrated, they
may require investments in new equipment. The advantage over "add-on", "end-of-pipe" measures
might be that performance will be more reliable, as machine performance and product quality will be
more directly linked to the clean-up technology employed.
It is of vital importance to the accuracy of the emission data to take into account the actual
performance of clean-up equipment. For example, clean-up equipment may have been duly installed
but is not functioning because of lack of maintenance or experienced personnel, or is even not
operated to save money. This kind of situation has been widely reported for developing and rapidly
industrialising countries.

Macro-emissions are produced by the burning of fossil fuels. In statistics, therefore, the availability of
timely, sufficiently detailed and accurate energy statistics is a prerequisite for the elaboration of
emission data.
2.3 MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS: PROPERTIES, SOURCES AND EFFECTS
The main air pollutants are:
- carbon dioxide (CO2 );

- sulphur dioxide (SO 2) (figure A.1.1);
- nitrogen oxides (NOx) (table A.1.2 and figure A.4.2);
- suspended particulate matter (SPM);
- carbon monoxide (CO);
- lead (Pb);
- volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
These are all primary air pollutants, i.e. emitted as such. To the list, one secondary air pollutant should be
added, i.e. formed out of other pollutants afte r emission,
- ozone (O3 ).
Lowering SO 2 levels is relatively easy, compared to those of SPM and NOx. SO 2 is reduced by using
fuels with a lower sulphur content. In contrast, reduction of dust from industries and soot from diesel
motors requires extensive scrubbing and regular motor maintenance respectively. With an exponential
rise in the number of motor vehicles, NO x levels tend to go up sharply, and only slow down when
catalytic converters for exhaust gases are applied. Ozone is directly related to photochemical smog.
Annex 1 discusses the major pollutants in more detail.
4
2.4 EMISSION CONTROL
Air pollution control strategies typically rely on the promulgation of air quality and emission
standards by local, national and regional authorities (refer to section 3.2). By requiring adherence to
the standards, governments can encourage or force industry to develop new and better technologies or
even to optimally use existing technology. As a result, substitution of new (less polluting) technology
for the existing can reduce emissions. However, in many cases such strategies are not applied because
some countries lack the financial and human resources to enforce compliance with air quality
standards. Also, in many countries, air pollution control measures are not embedded in a
comprehensive Environmental Policy Plan that outlines the relationship between the different areas of
concern, the environmental management measures to be adopted on the short, intermediate and long
term for different target groups (such as households and industry), and the associated costs and
benefits there of.
4
This section is largely based on WHO/UNEP (1988), chapter 2.5, and WHO/UNEP (1992), chapter 2.6.

Before the 1950s, the main air pollution control strategies employed by industrialised countries
focused on the dispersion of emissions through tall stacks and the relocation of major point sources
away from urban areas, or down-wind. However, it became apparent that more pollution controls
were needed to prevent further deterioration of urban air quality conditions. One of the major targets
for more stringent air pollution controls was fossil fuel combustion, ranging - though the principal
sources varied from one country to another - from domestic heating to industrial power production
and specific industrial processes. In some countries, attention was also directed to the control of
motor vehicle emissions.
Over the years, several general approaches have been developed to control air pollution from human
activities. These approaches, discussed in Annex 2, have been used in a range of combinations by
different countries to formulate overall air pollution control strategies.

3. AIR QUALITY
3.1 GENERAL
Urban air pollution has been growing since the Industrial Revolution. Rapid industrialisation,
burgeoning cities, and greater dependence en fossil fuels have brought in their wake increased
production of harmful pollutants, making life in many cities more and more unpleasant and unhealthy.
In western countries this trend in general has been reversed.
Despite rapid advancement in scientific knowledge about the nature, quantity, biological and
physico-chemical behaviour and adverse effects of individual air pollutants, substantial gaps remain in
our knowledge regarding the transformation, interaction and ultimate fate of the various air pollutants as
well as their combined (synergistic) effects on environment and human health (Tolba, 1992).
The earth's atmosphere is increasingly influenced by man-made emissions, next to an ever-present natural
emission load. The most important natural sources of atmospheric pollution are wind-blown dust in desert
areas, volcanic eruptions (Mount Pinatubo), smoke from forest fires, and radioactive decay products;
depending on the local circumstances and the prevailing weather, a mixture of these emissions constitutes
the natural background pollution. Man-made sources of atmospheric pollution are linked to the
accelerated pace of industrialisation, and more particularly, fossil energy use, in human society. Among
the most common and most harmful to human health of air pollutants are sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ),
suspended particulate matter (SPM), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and lead. In
addition, there is evidence of a growing threat to human health from indoor pollutants such as radon,
formaldehyde, asbestos, mercury and organic substances.
Thanks to growing public demand - and the increasing certainty of the evidence of a link between
pollution and threats to health and environmental damage - many industrialised countries have
controlled and reduced the most toxic pollutants. But in others - particularly in the Soviet Union and
Eastern Europe, and less industrialised Western countries - the problems continue.
In almost all developing countries, meanwhile, urban air pollution is worsening. Rapidly growing
cities, more traffic en roads, use of dirtier fuels, reliance en outdated industrial processes, growing
energy consumption, and the lack of industrial zoning and environmental regulations are all
contributing to reduced urban air quality and deteriorating public health.
In some developed countries, air quality monitoring programmes have been present since the 1960s. At
the international level, both World Health Organisation (WHO) and United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) initiated in 1974 a global air quality monitoring programme within the Global
Environment Monitoring System. Known as GEMS/Air 5 , the project has assessed the levels and health
effects of five of the most common and ubiquitous air pollutants (as mentioned in the first para
above), that is now operational in around 50 countries. Through this programme, air quality data are
being obtained from around 175 sites in 75 cities, of which 25 in developing countries (WHO/UNEP,
1992).
The data show that much of the world's population lives in cities where pollution levels exceed
recommended WHO guidelines, thereby exposing inhabitants to substantial health threats. For
instance, more than 1200 million people may be exposed to excessive levels of sulphur dioxide; 1400
million people to excessive levels of SPM and smoke; and 15-20% of North American and European
urban residents could be exposed to excessive levels of nitrogen dioxide. The air in half of the world's
5
Recently, UNEP has decided to develop a new programme to substitute the GEMS programme.

cities contains excessive levels of carbon monoxide; and people in up to a third of all cities may be
exposed to excessive lead levels.
There are many different pollution control options available: using cleaner fuels, cleaning fuels before
and during combustion, purifying emissions, encouraging energy conservation and, perhaps most
important, pla nning carefully. But controlling pollution is expensive, and presents governments with a
challenge: how to encourage industrial development while imposing tighter pollution control
regulations.
GEMS/Air reached four main conclusions on pollutant levels:
- that pollution-control strategies are beginning to take effect in many industrialised countries,
where trends in SO2, SPM and lead emissions have been generally downward;
- that controls on CO and NOx have been less effective, mainly because both pollutants are
produced by road traffic, which is increasing almost everywhere;
- that data from developing countries are incomplete, but indicate that emissions of all five
pollutants are growing;
- and that there are many cities-particularly in developing countries-where pollution levels still
exceed WHO guidelines.
More details in Annex 4, section 2.
It should also be noted that the phenomenon of air pollution is not confined to the outdoor environment,
even if awareness of indoor pollution is a comparatively recent development. This type of pollution is
strongly linked to inadequate housing and low income groups using low quality fuels such as charcoal,
coal, wood and dung for cooking and heating purposes. Indoor air pollution in residential buildings,
houses, public buildings and offices can also be generated through the use of various appliances,
chemicals, emissions from decorative and building materials, and through infiltration of the indoor
atmosphere by outdoor pollutants (Tolba, 1992). The most important indoor air pollutants and
contaminants include tobacco smoke, formaldehyde, asbestos fibres, radon decay products, products of
combustion (including SO x, NOx, CO), household chemicals (like pesticides) and several airborne
microbiological air contaminants like fungi and moulds, bacteria, viruses, algae, spores and pollen (Tolba,
1992). More details in Annex 3.
3.2 AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
Compared to water, air can be regarded as a more continuous medium. Thus, there is little practical value
in assigning environmental functions to air resources that are then used for defining diverging air quality
standards. Rather, standards (see, for example, table 6, below, or table A.3.2 in Annex 3) have been
formulated mainly on the basis of health effects of air pollution on man.
The single most important biological function of air 6 is that of a medium for the exchange of O 2 and
CO2 by living organisms in order to build up and decompose organic matter. Another function of air is
that of a medium for the release of gaseous and volatile wastes. The primary rationale behind air quality
6
If the atmosphere is to be viewed at large, including the stratosphere, more environmental functions might be cited,
e.g. maintaining the earth's heat balance (greenhouse effect) and protection against harmful ultraviolet radiation (UV-B)
through the stratospheric ozone layer.

standards is that the latter function should be permitted, with the proviso that its basic life support
function (as mentioned before) is not appreciably impaired.
The differing interpretations of what epidemiological limitations are acceptable from the human health
standpoint thus give rise to varying sets of air quality standards. In table 6 the WHO air quality
guidelines have been reproduced. They may serve as a reference if and when there are no comparable
national standards. Emission standards can also be a useful tool for statisticians in so far as they may play
a valuable role in the proper interpretation of air quality data. For example, the number of days when air
quality readings have exceeded national ambient air quality standards is a typical way of statistical
reporting on air quality conditions.
Table 6. Summary of WHO air quality guidelines

Pollutant Time-weighted average Units Averaging time
Sulphur dioxide 500 µg m-3 10 minutes

350 µg m-3 1 hour
100-1501 µg m-3 24 hours
40-601 µg m-3 1 year
Carbon monoxide 30 µg m-3 1 hour

10 µg m-3 8 hours
Nitrogen dioxide 400 1 hour

µg m-3
150 24 hours
µg m-3
Ozone
150-200 1 hour
100-120 µg m-3 8 hours
Measurement method of µg m-3
suspended particulate
matter: Black smoke 100-150a/ 24 hours
40-60a/ µg m-3 1 year
Total suspended particulates 150-230 µg m-3 24 hours
60-90a/ µg m-3 1 year
Thoracic particles (PM 10 ) 70a/ µg m-3 24 hours
Lead 0.5-1 µg m-3 1 year

µg m-3
a/
Guideline values for combined exposure to sulphur dioxide and suspended particulate matter (they may not apply to
situations where only one of the components is present).
Source: UNEP/WHO (1992).
3.3 AIR QUALITY MONITORING
The combined effects of the spatial configuration of air pollution sources and the peculiar
meteorological and topographical features are unique to each and every geographic area. 7, 8 As a
7
For information on sampling methods, the reader is referred to the following publications: ECE (1991); ESCAP
(1994); WHO/UNEP (1994 onwards) and the GEMS/AIR methodology review handbook series. General information on
environmental monitoring is available in WHO (1982).
8
Part of this section is based on WHO/UNEP (1992).

result, the design of an air quality monitoring network is very important; it must have its monitoring
sites properly located in order to adequately cover the areas being monitored, and to ensure that the
varying level of air pollution across the selected sites will be also representative for the air quality
situation in the surrounding areas. Appropriate quality assurance measures for the collection and the
analysis of the data are also required. This includes periodic visits to the site to ensure that no new
emission sources have appeared which could influence the representativeness of the monitoring site.
3.3.1 General
In the 1960s, recognition of the ubiquitous nature of air borne pollutants, such as SO 2 , NOx, CO,
SPM, Pb and O3 in urban air, and the increased concern over their potential adverse impacts on human
health, prompted many national institutions to establish systematic monitoring networks for the
routine measurement of urban air quality. National air quality standards and other forms of legislation
were also introduced in order to protect human health. In many of the more developed countries,
early legislation and monitoring efforts focused on SO 2 and SPM. Since the late 1970s, however, and
as motor vehicles became an increasingly important source of air pollutants, networks have typically
expanded to incorporate the routine monitoring of traffic -related pollutants such as CO, NO x and Pb.
During the 1980s, urban air quality monitoring networks for the traditional air pollutants were also
established in Third World countries, especially those in Asia and South America.
Prior to a discussion of more specific aspects of current air quality monitoring programme, it would
seem appropriate to discuss some general aspects of air quality monitoring in this section. However,
it should be noted that this section will not be particularly concerned with technical aspects such as
choice of sampling site, required frequency of sampling relative to study objectives, instruments and
sampling methods, as this would surpass the scope of this handbook. It should be clear though that
representative samples, collected through standardised (and properly calibrated) equipment in
accordance with strict protocols, are basic for the construction of reliable time-series that can then be
used for providing a useful national overview or facilitating international comparisons.
Air quality monitor ing can be effected through the use of automatic analysing equipment which
monitors relevant air quality parameters at regular intervals or on a continuous basis. Data generated
by this equipment may then be sent directly from the monitoring station to a central site where they
are processed into more meaningful information and where the activities of the monitoring stations
are supervised. Thus, real-time data become directly available, which may be important for the swift
measures that episodes of high air pollution or incidents demand. The advantages of the provision of
this kind of real-time information seem evident, but it presupposes the use of high-tech equipment and
the imparting of the requisite matching knowledge and skills for the personnel involved.
Alternatively, the use of non-automated means for air quality monitoring can also be resorted to, with
the collected samples being analysed in a laboratory. Raw data obtained from such samples will have
to be transformed to appropriate statistics that can then be utilised by the end-users for various
purposes such as technical reports, inputs for policy makers and the dissemination of environmental
information to the general public. An important way to make data "meaningful" to the various
stakeholders is to compare them to (national) air quality standards.
In cases where site specific air pollutants are expected or known to be present, they might be
monitored in conjunction with the usual parameters.

3.3.2 Air quality monitoring
In recent years, increased attention has been drawn to the need for the monitoring of photochemical
oxidants, notably O3 , and their VOC precursors. Although the instrumentation for their monitoring is
readily available, relatively few countries routinely monitor O3 as an indicator of photochemical
pollution. In the case of VOCs, reliable monitoring instrumentation has only recently been developed.
Thus, urban VOC data are scarce commodities. Also, greater attention is being paid to characterising
the nature of SPM. The heterogeneous nature of SPM means that Total SPM data have only limited
value for health impact assessments. Air quality monitoring objectives in some countries have
therefore narrowed down to the linked considerations of determining specific size fractions of
particulate matter (e.g. <10 µm - PM10 - which is in the respirable size range) and the related chemical
characteristics (e.g. the presence of heavy metals, viz. mercury, cadmium and lead, and organic
matter, such as PAHs).
Despite advances in the scale and scope of urban air quality monitoring efforts in recent years, major
difficulties in acquiring comprehensive and reliable air quality data for assessment purposes still
remain. Monitoring capabilities vary markedly between countries, depending largely on national
priorities and objectives and the availability of budgetary resources and trained manpower. Typically,
resources are not available to support the monitoring of all air pollutants in a routine air quality
programme. Thus, a selection of priority air quality parameters will have to be made, taking into
account the ease or difficulty of measurement of the air pollutant and its relative significance for
human health. Also, fixed site air quality monitoring stations only provide data about a city's air
pollution levels at the specific time and place of sampling. Thus, a sparse set of observations
collected from a few fixed site air quality monitoring stations (as a non-representative sample frame)
may not necessarily give an accurate picture of the extent and severity of the air pollution problem
over a larger area. Even in the highly industrialised countries, there is generally a limit to the number
of routine observation sites that can be established owing to the high cost of the equipment required.
Thus, routine monitoring is often supplemented by a combination of spot surveys and short-term
studies in order to adequately characterise a particular problem. Increasingly sophisticated modelling
techniques are also being developed in order to complement monitoring data by providing estimates
of ambient air pollution levels over wider areas.
More details in Annex 4.
3.4 EFFECTS: EXPOSURE
The variable nature of air pollution implies that an individual's actual exposure in his or her daily
activities will be equivalent to a summation of the exposures that he or she experiences in successive
"zones" over the day or week, with differing air pollution levels. Distinct life-styles and associated
living conditions in different parts of the world may thus contribute to widely varying levels of human
exposure to air pollution.
Currently, exposure assessment is the weakest link in the causal chain the possible health risks arising
from exposure to air pollutants are considered. It may be reasonable to use ambient air data as an
indicator of the exposure of population groups within a country or region; however, the relationship
between such data and actual exposure is likely to vary greatly among individuals and between
population groups in different regions. Moreover, factors that could influence the relationship of
ambient air data and human exposure (e.g. time spent indoors and contrasts in indoor/outdoor air
pollution) must also be taken into account.
Although the effects of air pollutants may be the main rationale for monitoring and generating the
requisite environmental monitoring statistics, the ascertaining and establishment of meaningful links
between air quality, exposure and health consequences probably are beyond the primary functions of a

statistical bureau. One of the reasons adduced for this situation is that routine health data on human
morbidity and mortality only allow very general conclusions, if any. Even special studies attempting
to relate air quality, exposures to air pollutants and health consequences hardly ever allow clear-cut
conclusions. In practice, it seems better to use exposure levels overtime as a proxy of health effects.
Where large data gaps in the database for both emissions and ambient concentrations exist, notably in
developing countries, it may be possible to fill some of these in relatively simple ways. For example,
the information collected regarding emissions and ambient concentrations may already indicate links,
albeit somewhat incomplete, between types of sources, emissions, their inventories, control measures
(or the lack of these) and ambient concentrations. The starting point for areas where little air quality
information is as yet available need not be an immediate extension of the air quality monitoring
network. Rather, the relevant factors indicated above can be assessed in a sequential manner: (a)
given the types of air pollution sources, it could be indicated what the possible human health effects
would be; (b) armed with information on human health impacts, decisions regarding the conduct of
emission inventories or the consideration of appropriate air pollution control measures could then be
undertaken. Next, some pilot air quality measurements might be undertaken as a start of a full-blown
air quality monitoring programme, but the outcomes of the steps just described might not reveal an
immediate need to do so.
3.5 REGIONAL AND GLOBAL AIR POLLUTION
3.5.1 Introduction
Air pollution is not restricted by geographical boundaries. Air pollutants can travel long distances,
horizontally or vertically, exerting impacts far from where they were originally generated. For example,
sulphur and nitrogen oxides may travel thousands of kilometres from their source (Hinnawi & Hashmi,
1987). Air pollution may thus give rise to atmospheric problems that have regional or global dimensions.
The following issues will be discussed in this section:
- Acid deposition and acid rain (regional);

- Greenhouse effect (global);
- Ozone depletion (global)
3.5.2 Acid deposition
Some emissions, because of their conversion into acids through atmospheric processes, can exert acidic
effects and impacts. The most important emissions in this respect are SO x and NO x. The adverse effects
they can cause include direct economic damages (e.g. crop losses), environmental effects (such as the
acidification of lakes) and cultural and aesthetic losses (e.g. damage to historical buildings and
sculptures). The causes and effects of acid deposition have been treated extensively in the literature
(Hinnawi & Hashmi, 1987).
The term "acid deposition" is scientifically more apt than the commonly used phrase "acid rain", because
atmospheric pollutants can be transported from air to earth in either wet or dry form. Sulphur oxide and
nitrogen oxides are the main sources of acid substances in the atmosphere.

Acid deposition poses serious threats to forestry, fisheries, wildlife and agriculture. Hundreds of lakes in
Scandinavia, the north-east United States, south-east Canada, south-west Scotland and China have
already turned acidic. It should be noted that all of these lakes are underlain with rock strata (e.g. granite)
and soils with low buffering capacity (i.e. the ability to neutralise acids through alkalic constituents in soil
or bedrock).
Owing to acid deposition, water quality deteriorates through the leaching of toxic metals from the soil.
Soil acidification also results in leaching of soil nutrients, thus decreasing soil fertility. Acid deposition
has been implicated as a contributory factor to the die-back of forests. Its influence can be indirect (via
the soil) or direct (through its action on the tree leaves or needles). Among many examples, about 50% of
the total forest area (3.7 million hectares) in the former West Germany during 1984 is reported to have
been damaged by such acid deposition (Tolba, 1992).
In sensitive groups (including children, asthmatics and adults with a hypersensitive respiratory system),
the possibility of various pulmonary effects from short-term exposure to 0.1 mg/m3 of sulphuric acid
aerosols cannot be ruled out (Hinnawi & Hashmi, 1987; WHO, 1986).
3.5.3 Global issues: the role of IPCC
Developments on issues regarding global air pollution have been very rapid. Two issues have been
the subject of international concern:
(a) The greenhouse effect (UNEP, 1987a), which may lead to climate change (UNEP, 1993);
(b) Depletion of the ozone layer (UNEP, 1987b, 1992), which may endanger life on earth through
enhanced ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
To address issues on climate change, a special international committee has been formed, the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). For an introduction to their work, see IPCC
(1992). For the selection of specific variables and methodologies used, it is advisable to follow the
IPCC guidelines (IPCC, 1995).9
3.5.4 Greenhouse effect
Carbon dioxide is not a pollutant in itself, but rather a natural component of the atmosphere and a primary
requirement for plant photosynthesis (i.e. the process by which the energy of sunlight is used by a green
plant to grow) (UNEP, 1992). Carbon dioxide, methane (CH4 ), water vapour, nitrous oxide (N 2O), ozone
(O3) and man-made chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) play a key role in the global heat balance. These
so-called greenhouse gases are fairly transparent to short-wave solar radiation but relatively opaque to
thermal radiation of longer wave length coming from the surface of the earth. The short-wave solar
radiation (including visible light) and heat are absorbed at the earth's surface and by clouds which then
radiate heat (in the form of long-wave radiation) back into space. Because greenhouse gases absorb part
of this radiation and reradiate it in all directions, they form a "blanket" trapping outgoing heat in the lower
atmosphere; this phenomenon is known as the "greenhouse effect". In itself this an essential process for
the existence and maintenance of life on earth. The current "enhanced greenhouse effect" however
9
The quite complete methodology of IPCC was developed at relatively short notice, whereas the "classic"
pollutants have to make do with far less sophisticated and complete methodological guidelines. Apart from the
enormous attention greenhouse gases received, it might be the relatively simple way to calculate greenhouse gas
emissions that explains the quick progress of IPCC. With a few exceptions, most CO2 emissions are directly linked
to energy consumption.

causes, with growing concentrations of greenhouse gases, the loss of thermal radiation from the earth to
space to be considerably reduced. As a result, a surplus of heat energy will be available at or near ground
level leading to an increase of the earth's mean temperature. Evidence suggests that the temperature
increase causes more ice from glaciers to melt, elevating the water level in oceans and submerging low-
lying coastal areas. This of course would cause various social, economic and environmental problems. It
should be noted though, that the global cycle of CO 2 and other gases, is incompletely understood. This is
mirrored in the uncertainties in "greenhouse" models, which show sizeable quantitative and qualitative
flaws (e.g. the role of oceans in global warming).
3.5.5 Ozone depletion
The ozone (O3) molecule is composed of three oxygen atoms. This highly reactive gas is present in the
stratosphere in traces.10 Most of the ozone (95%) in the atmosphere is concentrated in the stratosphere
(the atmospheric region between 25-40 km above sea level). Stratospheric ozone acts as a natural filter
for blocking and absorbing short wavelength (high energy) ultraviolet solar radiation (UV-B) harmful to
life on earth.
Because stratospheric ozone is being destroyed through a series of chemical reactions precipitated by
anthropogenic activity, the delicate balance between ozone production and destruction has been
destabilised. The oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine and nitrogen compounds involved in ozone destruction are
largely the product of human activities. It is a matter of concern that these developments may lead to a
sizeable decrease in the total amount of stratospheric ozone. It has been estimated that a 1% reduction in
stratospheric ozone will lead to an increase of about 2% in UV-B radiation on earth (Hinnawi & Hashmi,
1987). Among the ozone-depleting compounds from human activities, mainly chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) and nitrous oxide have been tagged as being responsible for the depletion of ozone from the
stratosphere. The CFCs, major agents in ozone depletion, are quite inert chemicals that are popular as
propellants and solvents in aerosol sprays, in refrigeration and air conditioning equipment, in foam-
blowing and as cleaning agents in the electronics industry.
The Montreal protocol (1987) aiming at phasing out CFCs has led to a very rapid reduction of CFCs in
developing countries. In these countries, production was stopped, remaining stocks destroyed, and CFCs
used in equipment in use (air conditioners, refrigerators) either reused or destroyed. [improve text]
The harmful effects of UV-B radiation on human beings include eye diseases, immunological changes,
photo-allergic reactions and skin cancer. According to epidemiological studies, a 1% depletion of the
ozone layer could result in a 0.2 to 0.6% increase in cataract incidence (UNEP, 1986).
10
Stratospheric ozone should be differentiated from ozone formed in smog conditions near the earth's surface (refer to
Annex 1).

4. ROLE OF THE NSS; SCOPE OF ASSESSMENT
4.1 ROLE OF THE NATIONAL STATISTICAL SERVICE
Air quality statistics attempt to summarise and generalise reported data, as supplied by institutions
involved in the measurement, modelling, analysis and interpretation of air quality data. The number
of data sources will be limited, and will not suggest self-evident ways of condensation and
presentation. Furthermore, because air quality data are gathered through increasingly sophisticated
instruments, quality assurance and comparability of data are important issues. This state of affairs
necessitates frequent consultations with technical experts from environmental monitoring institutions.
The compilation of emission data involves – especially when country totals are striven after - the use
of generalising and simplifying assumptions, emission factors, and modelling. In this sense, for
emissions, the borderline between monitoring and statistics is less clear-cut than for air quality data.
What role then does this imply for the NSS? In compiling and generating air pollution statistics, the
NSS will be confronted with technical problems (e.g. regarding the existence of substantive data gaps
as well as in the analysis and interpretation of data). To resolve these problems the NSS will have to
consult and co-operate with environmental monitoring authorities and others involved in emission and
air quality issues. On a wider integrative level, the NSS might underline the importance of a
statistical framework for environment statistics, and the use economic statistics to elaborate data. The
NSS, with its business register, and data on population and productive activities, might play a vital
role in the computation of emission data for an emission inventory. The main problem with
emissions will be the completeness (country wide coverage) of the data base, whereas for quality data
the representativeness in time & space are the main concern.
Figure 7. depicts the various typical actors and information flows on the basis of the DPSIR scheme
(top line).

Figure 7. Actors in recording air pollution issues
activities emissions Ambient impacts measures

concentration
EPA
Ministry of surveys
surveys Emission Health,
inventory Agriculture
& others
NSO
NSS Envstat unit
4.2 SCOPE OF ASSESSMENT
To characterise air quality, ideally all macro-air emissions mentioned in section 2.3 should be
monitored. Monitoring constraints, however, seem to be reflected in the fact that within the
GEMS/Air programme, only SPM and SO 2 are being regularly monitored for all stations. Bearing in
mind the importance of linking emissions to the ensuing ambient air quality (refer to Ch. 2), this state
of affairs for air quality might have a somewhat sobering effect on efforts to link both data systems. 11
But then, the development of an emission inventory should not be impeded for lack of air quality data.
Knowledge of the relative contribution of different sources to the overall air pollution situation in
many cases may suffice as a starting point for the consideration of air quality management measures.
Locally, the emissions of micropollutants might pose a significant environmental burden. In such
cases, their inclusion in the statistical system should be considered. It would, however, be difficult to
interpret the data, unless country-wide data or data for the region of concern were available. It seems
advisable therefore to start with monitoring macropollutants, subsequently adding micropollutants to
the monitoring programme as experience in running a monitoring programme has been gained.
As air pollution is usually most severe in urban areas, monitoring tends to be concentrated on these
zones. Therefore, statistics will naturally yield data primarily for cities, while some data from the
countryside may be collected as background readings. In this connection, it is worthwhile
remembering that it is not a useful exercise to generalise data from different cities or urban areas,
especially when time series are still restricted to rather short time frames. Furthermore, different air
quality monitoring networks may not be standardised, i.e. not use prescribed methods, sampling
routines and protocols yielding data comparable between different areas.
11
When sufficient data are available, dispersion and deposition models can be tested with historic data, and a
better fit can be achieved. Then, using the concept of ‘critical load’, one can infer from depositions the
maximum permissible emissions, and devise a policy for reaching – within a specified time frame – the desired
emission level.

5. ESTIMATION METHODOLOGY FOR AIR EMISSIONS
5.1 STATISTICS GENERAL
5.1.1 Variables
In the GEMS/Air programme only concentration data, and no emissions were included. In practice,
only comparable data on SO 2 and SPM could be gathered.
CSD (1996) recommends the following variables:

Emissions of
- GHG
- ODS
- SOx
- NOx
OECD collects data on the following variables:

- SOx
- NOx
- Particulates (SPM)
- CO
- NM-VOCs
- Methane
- Lead
- CO2
- CFCs
- Halons
5.1.2 Methodology general
Air pollution emissions can either be measured directly or estimated on the basis of fuel consumption
data (or other materials consumed) and process-specific emission factors. While direct data may seem
preferable, in most cases data are drawn from estimates. There are a number of air emission
estimation procedures that could generate relatively sound and reliable information. Table 8
summarises the main methodological tools available for the various types of emissions.

Table 8. Main methodological tools for various types of air emissions

Statistics on Emission
Energy Production Monitoring factor
Fuel combustion yes no large small

units units & households
Process emissions no yes large small

units units
Mobile sources yes no no yes
The construction and use of an emission inventory is described in the chapter 2, Emissions general.
Each of the methods discusses below might be used in conjunction with this instrument. Corinair is
the oldest and best developed international emission inventory. On a European level it covers now
eight compounds: SO 2 , NOx, NH3 , NM-VOC, Methane, CO, CO2 , and N2 O. It consists of
comprehensive guidelines for estimating and reporting air emissions. A pollutant nomenclature is
being developed by EEA, designed to be used in conjunction with the process classification NOSE.
For fuels, within CORINAIR the NAPFUE (Nomenclature for air pollution: fuels) nomenclature was
developed, which perhaps needs minor revisions to be compatible with official energy statistic s from
Eurostat and IEA.
5.1.3 Possible problems with air pollution data
Three general kinds of problems are frequently encountered in assembling an database with some
degree of consistency and reliability. They apply to emission data as well as air quality data, though
the third one specially applies to air quality data. In contrast to air quality data, which largely depend
on actual measurements, emission data may be derived from existing data (like production and
consumption data and fuel use statistics).
Varying measurement methods

It is obvious that this situation could lead to a fundamental problem, especially when the monitoring
data are not compatible (and will therefore preclude their 'translation' into a form that will ensure data
comparability). In this case, no consistent database can be constructed. To avoid this pitfall, it is
advisable to use standardised monitoring methods and other relevant methodological aspects; the air
quality monitoring methodologies recommended by GEMS/Air mig ht be a useful reference point.
Data gaps
Data gaps are inevitable, but may sometimes be closed. The critical point is often not so much the
statistical techniques as assessing whether environmental conditions of direct relevance to the
monitoring readings are known, and whether they can be reasonably reconstructed or assumed
comparable to normal readings. Clearly, such an assessment exercise requires expert judgement.
Reconstructed data should be clearly indicated as such.
Incomplete or short time series

Incomplete time series consist mostly of data from irregular monitoring, or a collection of
discontinuous time series. In such cases, it is hardly possible to construct continuous time series
(because the data gaps are too wide, and the measurement methods may not be compatible). In
general, it is preferable to present the data available for the different periods, with information on the
measurement procedure and compatibility of the results. Also, it may be wise to add the warning that

the use of incomplete or short time series for discerning air quality trends is not advisable: chance
fluctuations might easily pass for trends.
5.2 COMBUSTION OF FOSSIL FUELS
From a statistical standpoint, combustion of fossil fuels is a relatively homogeneous process, that is,
the variety of fuels, boilers and clean-up technology 12 is rather limited. The amount of (large,
industrial) boilers also tends to be restricted. Furthermore, when energy statistics are in place, fuel
data may easily be gleaned from them. 13 To compute emission data, WHO emission factors might be
used (WHO, 1993), when local emission factors are not available or incomplete. With an appropriate
correction for the effects of clean-up technologies, emissions can be estimated. These data could be
compared to or combined with data acquired from actual measurements. Also, maximum allowed
emissions 14 according to the operation of emissions permits, may be checked this way. It seems most
economical to base calculations on aggregate fuel data for production activities that can be considered
homogeneous in process and size, except for large combustion plants with specific flue gas cleaning
processes.
The accuracy of the results varies considerably, depending on the precision of the basic data. For
SO2 , the S-content of the fuel is the determining factor, while for NOx the combustion technology is
decisive. Emissions factors are in general less accurate than fuel consumption data. The standard
deviations for the Netherlands emission data are estimated roughly at 10% for SO 2 , 10 to 20% for
NOx, 25% for SPM, and 25 to 100% for CO and VOC (Emission Inventory).
The box below gives an example of how, making various selections, simplifications and assumptions,
industrial emissions may be computed. Comparing industrial emission data with those for vehicular
emissions (discussed in the box in section 5.4), it seems clear that currently, industrial emissions to air
are considerably lower than those for vehicular traffic. Furthermore, industrial emissions are emitted
at greater heights above the ground, while the use of the relatively clean natural gas for boilers and
furnaces in Bangladesh should be regarded as an important factor in emission prevention.
BOX: Example of the calculation of industrial emissions
For Dhaka city, Bangladesh, an inventory was undertaken for industrial emissions (DOE, 1992):
(a) In Dhaka, there were 400 registered and many more unregistered industrial units. The vast majority of
them were not regarded as major air polluters, or were too small to have significant emissions. Only 32, widely
dispersed over the city, could be considered of the medium to lower medium size;
(b) Textile, dyeing and printing, beverage and chemical processing units cause air pollution primarily from
their boiler stacks. Thus, process emissions were neglected. All boilers and furnaces in Dhaka use natural gas as
fuel. Therefore, the only significant emissions would be NOx , CO and VOCs. From an average boiler size and
estimated steam production, gas consumption was computed, and from these figures emissions of CO and VOC
were derived;
12
US-EPA uses the term "control efficiencies".
13
General guidance can be found in Energy Statistics: A Manual for Developing Countries (United Nations 1991). The
manual does, however, not provide any guidance on the computation of emissions from winning, conversion and use of
fuels.
14
In Sweden, maximum allowed emissions are used for computing SO2 and NOx emissions (except for large combustion
plants). For Sweden, this approach might generate too high an estimate, but for developing countries such a procedure
might yield one that is too low, because actual emissions may easily surpass allowed ones.

(c) Metallurgical, glass and refractory units also have only gas-fired furnaces. But in these cases, some
SO2 , NO x and a considerable amount of SPM will be emitted. Per furnace, average emissions per day were
assumed;
(d) Small-scale units were assumed to contribute an amount of air pollution equal to the sum of the
emissions of the medium-scale units;
(e) Thus, a crude assessment of industrial air pollution in Dhaka city was arrived at. Table 9 summarises
the results.
Table 9. Industrial emissions loads in Dhaka city, Bangladesh
Medium-sized units Total medium Small-scale units Total

Textile Metallurgical
&c. &c.
Number of units 14 18 32 >300 >330
SPM - 360 360 360 720

CO 3,500 900 4,400 4,400 8,800
HC 3,500 900 4,400 4,400 8,800
NOx - 1,800 1,800 1,800 3,600
SO2 - 180 180 180 360
All emissions in kg per day.

Source: DOE (1992).
5.3 PROCESS EMISSIONS
The short overview of process emissions presented in section 2.2 discussed the fact that that
monitoring of these emissions is much more complicated than monitoring those arising from fossil
fuels combustion. The possible amount of substances in process emissions, varying production
methods and clean-up technologies renders a total overview nearly impractical. Recourse to the use of
production statistics would yield only partial information, as production methods and clean-up
technology should also be known, in addition to what actual operating conditions are. This makes it
unlikely that NSS performs such a task by itself. It should be remembered, too, that the NSS is not
the primary agency to be involved in the establishment and maintenance of a database on process
emissions, as well as emissions in general. The Min istry or Department of the Environment would
seem to be the more suitable agency for pursuing such a mandate.
On a per country basis, hundreds or thousands of chemical compounds may be expected to be

released. Of these, only a handful will be of national importance, with others only assuming local
importance. To determine what emissions deserve priority attention, the following general procedure
is proposed:
(a) Production statistics or an overview of the country's production structure should be screened.
Regional differences should be taken into account. Table X in Chapter Pollution general shows
emissions by ISIC, that might be helpful for an initial categorisation. Also, the OECD has produced a

list of chemicals which are manufactured in quantities exceeding 1,000 tonnes per year (UNEP,
1992);
(b) The impact or toxicity of emissions, and not only the quantity, should be considered. Though
NOx is typically released in great quantities, its direct effects are relatively moderate. In contrast, toxic
substances may have effects at a very low level. Table 10 might be useful when considering this
particular aspect;
(c) After compiling a preliminary list of substances, a general strategy to identify important
sources should be devised. Usually, a facility's physical output, monetary turnover, number of
employees, or a combination of these should be available from records. For a more detailed
investigation, a suitable cut-off rate should be established. Plants that are above the limit would be
treated individually, while those below the limit can be considered collectively, using emission
factors. Larger plants might be surveyed partly through inspection visits;
(d) Eventually, an overview of total emissions will be generated. For presentation purposes, the
grouping of air pollution compounds in appropriate classes should be considered (e.g. heavy metals,
VOC). Careful documentation of the whole procedure is necessary to allow comparable exercises in
the future, and to make updating a viable exercise.
Table 10. Core list of special compounds for consideration in an air emission inventory
Arsenic Ethylene oxide
Asbestos Formaldehyde
Benzene Gasoline vapours
Beryllium Mercury
1,3 butadiene Methylene chloride
Cadmium Perchloroethylene
Carbon tetrachloride Polycyclic organic matter
Chloroform Radionuclides
Chromium Trichloroethylene
Coke oven emissions Vinyl chloride
Ethylene dibromide Vinylidene chloride
Ethylene dichloride
Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency.
The potential complexity of establishing a monitoring system for process emissions makes it more
logical to concentrate initially on macro-pollutants, as released from boilers and mobile sources.
When enough experience has been gained, selected process emissions may be added to the inventory.
Two aspects have to be considered important in this respect:
(a) Chemicals banned in developed countries might still be produced or used in developing
countries. The classical example is DDT. Thus, the OECD list of chemicals manufactured in
quantities >1,000 tonnes per year (UNEP, 1992) might in this respect be incomplete for use
by developing countries.
(c) Unlike boiler and mobile emissions, process emissions may be due to the production of
chemicals, eventually to be used elsewhere (e.g. fertilisers, pesticides, paints). When such
compounds are produced in great quantities (like fertilisers), it might be useful to consider
including in the inventory aspects of the fate of these compounds during and after application.

In this manner, initial steps towards the establishment of substance balances, describing the fate
of compounds through production, use and emission into the environment, may be made. Such
a balance would not only take into account the fate after emission into air, but equally to water,
soil and in waste. For air, balances (or accounts) have been made for e.g. nitrogen, sulphur,
lead, PVC, and selected solvents. Eurostat (1997) gives an overview of experiences in the EC.
Balances in general try to construct a complete picture of stocks and flows of a substance.
Therefore they are important for well-informed environmental policies.
5.4 MOBILE SOURCE EMISSIONS
Mobile sources are not limited to road traffic. It also encompasses railway traffic, water traffic (inland
and sea going), air traffic, and non-road vehicles (e.g. agricultural machinery, construction machines).
For road traffic - by far the most important category - one of the main monitoring problems is the
amount and variety of air pollution sources and the mobility of the sources (Where do emissions take
place?). Also, most vehicular emissions (compare, for example SO 2 to CO or NO x) are dependent on
the type of vehicle and load, type of engine, its age and state of maintenance, type and quality of fuel,
speed and driving pattern. Under these conditions, the impracticality of direct measurements is fairly
obvious. The assessment of air emissions from vehicles will have to be attempted using a mix of
survey, field observations and emission modelling. In fact, in order to obtain correct data, for each
year the composition of the vehicular fleet and the appropriate emissions factors should be calculated.
To calculate vehicular emission data, the follow ing data should be available:
(a) Composition of active fleet: official registration systems (licence plates or insurance) are the
obvious sources. An important question is whether the system is up to date. For example, are
scrapped, exported or imported stolen cars and non-operational cars adequately reflected in the
registration system?;
(b) Analysis of vehicular fleet composition in classes, according to age, type of car, and type of
motor (for examples, see ECE, 1993, Part Three);
(c) Performance of cars. Number of kilometres per type of car according to driving mode. To
this end, a split-up in city traffic, two-laners and four-laners is often made. For developing countries,
the quality of road surface might be considered, too. For vehicles used in business, performance data
might be gathered from the company's registration systems. For private cars, such data could be
collected from a car user panel (see Annex 5, section 2);
(d) Road use. General data can be gathered from automatic registration systems to measure
traffic density as, for example, employed by urban and road authorities, toll booth registrations or
optics-based registrations. (This kind of data could also, in conjunction with speed registration, be
used to model noise emission.);
(e) Emission factors per driving mode, per age class, per type of vehicle, and per type of motor.
Default values from existing literature may be used, but local laboratory and road measurement
values (if available) should be preferred. In the ideal case, emission factors for the current vehicular
fleet should be produced, i.e. emission factors valid for the statistical year under consideration. For
developing countries, fuel used, state of maintenance and age are conspicuous factors significantly
influencing actual emissions. Thus, use of detailed emissions factors from developed countries may
tend to underrate actual emissions in developing countries;
(f) Most emission factors available are valid for temperate or cold climates, and apply to sea-
level situations. Therefore, possible corrections for ambient temperature and altitude should be

considered. In hilly areas, slopes might have a considerable influence on fuel consumption and
emissions.
Of course, for insufficient data estimates, simplifications, or assumptions could be adopted.

But the methodological refinements chosen should be transparent, in order to be able to make
corrections when better data and information become available.
The input parameters are summarised in figure 11.
Figure 11. Parameters for the calculation of traffic emissions
Fuel consumption
Fuel type
Vehicle category
Vehicle park
Number of vehicles per
Vehicle category
Age distribution of the vehicle
Park per vehicle category
Driving conditions Calculation of annual emissions

Annual mileage per vehicle of all pollutants for all Corinair
Class (hot and cold) road traffic source categories at
Annual mileage per road class all defined territorial units and
Average speed of vehicle road classes
Emission factors
Vehicle class
Production year
Road class
(vehicle speed)
Other parameters
Fuel properties
Climatic conditions (outdoor
temperature)
Source: European Commission (1994b).
In the box below, vehicular emissions are calculated in two ways. The estimates of the emission levels
obtained by the two indirect methods are in fairly close agreement. Although complete concordance
with real emissions remains to be established, one may conclude that simplified, indirect approaches
may yield useful (that is: relevant for policy makers) results for initial estimates.

BOX: An example of the estimation of vehicular emissions
In an inventory of air pollutants, vehicular emissions were calculated for greater Dhaka, Bangladesh (DOE,
1992). Estimations were made along the following (simplified) lines:
(a) Sales of petroleum products were supplied by the oil companies;
(b) Emission coefficients, per kg of fuel consumed, based on Indian data, were established;
(c) Average and peak daily emissions per pollutant (peak days were assumed to be 120% of average daily
emissions) were calculated;
(d) While the sales data may be rather precise, the emission coefficients are not. Therefore, an additional
computation was made based on an estimate of distance travelled, per type of car;
(e) The number of registered vehicles was only known for the whole country;
(f) Using this total, expert judgements were made on the amount of vehicles in greater Dhaka; also, the
average distance travelled was assessed (per type of vehicle, average distance per day and peak day
distance);
(g) Daily average and peak day emissions based on the estimates in step (f) were computed;
(h) Lastly, total average and peak day emissions per pollutant, according to main vehicle source type, were
calculated.
For example, 60% of SPM emissions were attributed to diesel vehicles, while cars and 2/3 wheelers accounted
for 90% of CO emissions. The outcomes of both computations are compared in table 12.
Table 12. Comparison of two estimation methods for average vehicular emissions in Dhaka
Pollutant Amount based on Amount based on

fuel used vehicular movement
CO 58,660 64,920
HC 12,830 14,920
NO x 10,620 8,730
SO2 960 950
SPM 2,050 1,520
Lead 110
All emissions in kg per day.

Source: DOE (1992).
The determination of the appropriate emission factors and the composition of the vehicular fleet
should not be considered a task of the NSS, as specialised technical knowledge is required to select
and adapt emission factors for developing countries; also, vehicle registration systems and other input
variables are usually not part of the statistical system.
The importance of road traffic emissions in urban areas stems from their dominance as to emitted
loads, the low altitude of their release, and from their adverse spatial distribution: the highest
emissions are generally encountered in the most populated areas. As a result, the impact of road
traffic emissions on urban air quality and on the health of the general population is quite significant

(Economopoulos, 1993). Likewise, it should be noted that other environmental problems associated
with traffic also tend to concentrate in urban areas, such as noise (from engines, tyres and horn
blowing) and the inordinate use of space for roads and parking spaces. Moreover, traffic emissions in
urban areas are exacerbated by the driving mode imposed in traffic -congested areas: frequent
accelerations and braking, and idling engines at traffic lights and in traffic jams. And even catalytic
converters cannot be used as a panacea: to function properly, they have to warm up; for a distance up
to 5 kilometres from the start of a ride, emissions will be appreciably higher.
The various circumstances mentioned might be an important reason for limiting initial endeavours in
emissions monitoring to selected urban areas. It seems logical preliminarily to compute the total
emission of selected air quality variables before proceeding to their temporal and spatial distribution.
For an assessment of spatial distribution, many variables concerning actual traffic density are
required, plus additional modelling, involving for example dispersion factors.
For other types of transport (such as trains, ships and aircraft), the reader is referred to
Economopoulos (1993) and ECE (1993).
5.5 EMISSION INVENTORIES
The maintenance of a current emission inventory is a fundamental tool in air quality management
programmes. Without emission inventories, it is not possible to establish a link between emissions
and air quality. It is clear that the lack of (or inadequacy of) an emissions inventory will hinder the
design of appropriate and cost-effective air pollution control strategies. Thus, an inventory should
cover the major sources of the variables monitored. More details in Chapter 2.

6. AIR QUALITY STATISTICS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of air quality statistics is to provide general and specific information on the quality of
ambient air that can then be used as a basis for policy measures to address the air pollution problems
and their effects. As statistics on human exposure to air pollution are hardly available and pose
manifold and serious methodological and practical problems, air pollution concentration statistics are
generally used as a proxy value. Air quality statistics in themselves have two function:
- they provide information on the state of the ambient air, and

- make it possible to monitor the results of policies to curb pollution.
Policies to reduce pollution are not well possible without insight in emission sources (their geographic
distribution and relative strength being the most crucial information).
6.2 VARIABLES
In section 2.3 of this chapter, the main air pollutants were identified and described. In section 5.1 the
main variables included in various international data colle ction efforts were presented (GEMS/Air;
CSD (1996); OECD). OECD recommends that data be collected in urban areas and in background
stations. Furthermore, OECD
i) suggests that three types of cities be selected, i.e. a city in which a notable portion (5-10%) of the
national population is concentrated, an industrial city in which a significant number of
inhabitants are considered to be exposed to the worst level of pollution, and a city with dominant
residential and service function and with intermediate level of pollutants;
ii) recommends that trends are only computed where there are at least five monitoring sites,
representing two or more areas of the city.
iii) recommends that for background levels, a station should be selected out of the currently
operating stations remote from an industrial area.
Preferably the background level station(s) should be upwind from industrial areas, and not be exposed to
natural emissions (like from volcanoes). Under the GEMS programme, this type of stations was already
operational.
Table 13 summarises relevant monitoring variables for air quality as identified by ECE. The variables
have been classified into two groups: those of immediate importance and those which seem more fit
for future work. The criterion for the inclusion of variables in the first group has been the local and
regional effects of emissions.
Meanwhile, countries may be involved in monitoring programmes including one or more of the
second group of variables. This may specifically apply to countries participating in the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) programme (covering greenhouse gases) or the
programme on ozone depletion (refer to section 3.5.3 – 3.5.5).

Table 13. Variables and their relevance in quality and emission statistics
E C
I B G
Sulphur compounds
Sulphur oxides (including emissions of hydrogen sulphide, H2S) X X X
Particulate sulphate o o
Oxidised nitrogen compounds and oxidants

NOx (excluding nitrous oxide) X X X
Nitric acid and particulate nitrate o o o
Ozone - tropospheric X X
- stratospheric o
Nitrous oxide (tropospheric) o
Reduced nitrogen compounds

Ammonia o
Particulate ammonium compounds o
Inorganic carbon compounds

Carbon monoxide X X X
Carbon dioxide o o
Halogens and inorganic halogen compounds o o
Volatile organic compoundsa/

(including halogenated compounds)
Methane o o
Non-methane compounds
Aldehydes X X X
CFCs o o
Halons o o
Other halogenated hydrocarbons o o
Dioxide o
Heavy metals (lead; others to be specified) o a/
Suspended particulate matter X X X X
Chemical composition of precipitation water X X
Notes: E = emissions C = concentrations

I = at impact stations B = at national or regional background stations
G = at global background stations X = of immediate importance
o = for future work
a/
Except lead
Source: Adapted from ECE (1990).
Table 14 makes the distinction in air quality data on priority and non-priority substances by
differentiating between impact and background stations. In general, priority should be given to data
from impact stations (with the possible exception of volatile organic compounds). Ozone (for its
health impacts) and precipitation (because pH readings may give a general idea of rain water
quality/wet deposition) might be added to this priority list.
In actual practice, SPM and SO 2 are likely to be the air quality data that will be available. The two
variables might then provide a fair impression of general air quality, even in the absence of data on
other variables. In fact, they are the only two parameters that GEMS/Air has been able to report on
internationally so far.

Table 14. Air quality variables, according to type of station

Impact stations National/regional Global
background backgrounda/
SOx (as SO2 ) SOx (as SO2 ) Ozone (stratospheric)

NO x (as NO2 ) Particulate sulphate CO2
CO NO x (as NO2 ) CH4
VOCs b/ Nitric acid/part.nitrate CFCs
Leadc/ Ozone (tropospheric) Halons
SPM Ammonia N2 O
Particulate ammonium SPM
VOCs b/
Precipitationd/
a/
Tetrachloroethane and trichloroethene might be included.
b/
To be specified.
c/
Mercury and cadmium might be considered.
d/
pH/H+; ammonium, nitrate, chloride, sulphate; sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium; conductivity.
Source: ECE (1990).
6.3 CONVENTIONS RECOMMENDED FOR AIR QUALITY DATA
15
6.3.1 General
(a) Data on air pollution concentrations should be stored for the individual monitoring stations.
Summary information on air quality characteristics of measurement sites should be made
available to users of the statistics. The GEMS/Air station type should be added (impact
station, regional or national background station, global background station);
(b) Impact monitoring stations should be representative of the air quality situation of a particular
location;
(c) Air pollution concentration statistics should be accompanied by indications of the sampling
and analytical methods used in basic measurement;
(d) Qualifying statements regarding the functioning of the monitoring station relative to a specific
air quality variable or the existence of special ambient conditions should be properly noted
and stored alongside with the collected air quality data. The degree of reliability of the air
pollution concentration statistics should be indicated in the presentation of this statistical
information. In particular, the representativeness of these statistics for the time period
covered should be observed and stated;
(e) Summary air quality statistics over individual stations should be clearly keyed to the specific
geographical areas (like urban areas) that they pertain to.
15
Mainly based on ECE (1990).

6.3.2 Statistical conventions
(a) Concentrations should preferably be expressed as mass per volume, e.g. µg/m3 ; 16
(b) Sampling frequency should allow the computation of the relevant statistical measures such as
mean, median, standard deviation, maximum-minimum, high-low percentiles;
(c) For air quality statistics at the national level, the following statistic is often used: quantity of
days per year that ambient air quality standards are exceeded (e.g. in selected cities);
(d) Air pollution concentration statistics should be calculated from 24 hour (or 1 hour) averages,
separately for distinct climatic periods (such as "summer" and "winter", "wet" and "dry"
seasons, or another appropriate climatic classification taking into account observed or
expected differences in air quality between seasons).
6.4 STANDARDS
It might be recalled that in section 3.2, where the WHO guidelines were specified, the guidelines and
standards were exclusive ly based on impacts on humans. Environmental quality standards based on
important criteria such as the vulnerability of ecosystems (e.g. forests or water bodies) have not yet
been developed in a systematic way. Where these standards are used, they are based not so much on
ambient air concentrations, as on the total deposition load per time unit (also referred to as
immission).
6.5 SOURCES OF AIR QUALITY DATA
Table 15 contains a generalised list of institutional sources of air quality data. Local experts should
be able to help in drafting an accurate list for individual countries.
16
"Volume per volume" data are very convenient to convey an idea of the comparative presence of substances. These
data are normally expressed as parts per million (ppm; 106) or parts per billion (ppb; 109). For statistical reporting,
however, mass (weight) per volume is to be preferred. In converting "volume per volume" to "mass per volume", use is
made of Avogadro's Law, stating that the volume occupied by one gram of mo lecular mass (short: grammol) of a gas at a
temperature of 250C and a pressure of 760 millimeters of mercury is equal to 24.45 litres (or 22.40 litres at 00C and 760
mm Hg). Thus, the volume of one gram of molecular mass at 250C and 760 mm pressure = [ppm] * [ M * 106] =
micrograms per cubic metre under the specified standard conditions. 24,450
Where ppm = parts per million, and

M = the gram molecular mass of the gas
Relevant atom weights are given below:

Hydrogen (H): 1 Nitrogen (N): 14
Carbon (C): 12 Sulphur (S): 32
Oxygen (O): 16
For SPM, the above formula cannot be used, as it is not a gas, but a mixture of particles.

Table 15. Sources of air quality data
Source Type of data
Ministry of environment/ Monitoring data

Dept of environment Data for State of the Environment reporting
Overview of sources
Ministry of industry Air quality due to industrial activities
Ministry of housing Air quality in residential areas

Indoor air quality
Ministry of agriculture Air quality relating to agriculture and forests
Ministry of traffic and transport Air quality relating to traffic
Meteorological institute Rainfall data; composition of rain
Universities, selected NGOs Various additional data
NSS
Health statistics Air quality data; health effects
Housing statistics Air quality in residential areas; indoor air quality
6.6 DEPOSITION
Deposition is, together with air quality, part of state variables. For convenience it is included in this
section. Deposition logically follows the diffusion of substances emitted.
It is difficult to have an accurate measurement of the total deposition of substances. The methodology
for wet deposition is relatively well developed and can be regarded as reliable, especially for
compounds reactive in an aqueous environment or soluble in water. This is not the case, however,
with dry deposition, where the main problems revolve around deposition velocities, pollutant
distribution between the aqueous and dry phase and the reliability of the measurement methods. For
these reasons, it is understandable that most air quality monitoring programmes as yet are restricted to
wet deposition. Deposition data meanwhile are mainly computed using models, using emissions as a
main input.
The single most important pollutant group monitored in depos ition studies are acidifying substances,
generally stemming from sulphur and nitrogen compounds. Table 16 specifies the acidifying
substances concerned. General information on acidification can be found in UNEP (1992).

Table 16. Wet acidifying depositi ons
Compound Formula To be expressed in
Sulphur dioxide SO2 )

Sulphate SO4 ) sulphur content
Sulphuric acid H2 SO4 )
Nitrogen dioxide NO2 )

Nitrate NO3 ) nitrogen content
Nitric acid H2 NO3 )
Ammonia NH3 ) nitrogen content
Ammonium NH4 + )
The acidity of wet deposition should be stated as the pH or H + measured. The pH/H+ will be mainly
the sum total of the acidity of the above-mentioned compounds, although other local acids may
contribute significantly, e.g. fluoric acid (HF) and chloric acid (HCl). In the absence of data on
separate substances, pH/H+ might be a suitable overall indicator. The volume of wet acidifying
substances is to be calculated as:
concentration of given component * volume of precipitation
The sum totals per month, season and year might be considered.
In the absence of actual measurements, and with no modelling results of total depositions from
emissions, the notion of potential acid equivalent (PAE) is often used. According to this concept,
each substance is rated according to its potential yield of acid equivalents, i.e. H+. Table 17 states the
PAEs of some important air pollutants.
Table 17. Potential acid equivalents of some air pollutants
Compound Acid PAE (per grammol)
SO2 H2SO4 2
NO2 HNO3 1
NH3/NH4 HNO3 1
Note: The PAE concept assumes a "worst case" scenario. Not all compounds
may in reality turn into acids. Furthermore, the notion abstracts from the
specific properties and impacts of the acids involved.
Other deposition variables might be considered, e.g. lead (mainly from traffic) or heavy metals from
ore smelters or mining areas. Their inclusion, however, depends on the availability of reliable
analytical equipment.
OECD (1998) collect the following data on acid deposition:
- trends in annual mean pH values of acid precipitation;

- trends in annual means of SO 4 contained in acid precipitation;
- trends in annual means of NO3 contained in acid precipitation.

Note that OECD in principle restricts data to acid components contained in wet deposition (=
precipitation).
6.7 INTEGRATION OF D ATA & MODELLING
Because air is a continuous environmental medium, it is relatively easier to generalise air quality data
than those for water. Notwithstanding this, it would still be prudent to be circumspect in generalising
air quality data, considering that only extensive data sets for SO x and SPM from GEMS/Air are
available. The paucity of data for other air quality variables renders it difficult to generalise on the
basis of insights with respect to a broad range of pollutants. For this reason, it may be best to
postpone generalisation of air quality data until more experience has been gained.
Attempts at generalisation usually bring to the fore two important issues:
a. Geographical integration: what areas can safely be regarded as homogeneous?

b. Integration of variables: is it warranted to consider several air quality variables together in
relation to a common aspect, such as the process of acidification? (refer to section 6.6). If so,
there is always the risk of obscuring other aspects of the individual substances.
In practice, the need for the integration of air quality data may present itself over time in a rather
straightforward manner; however, the actual possibilities for integration should be ascertained from
the data record itself.
In most developing countries, only urban areas are monitored for air quality. GEMS/Air recommends
at least one air quality monitoring site in a residential area, another in a traffic area, and a third in an
industrial zone. While such a monitoring set-up may not allow the construction of an air quality
picture for the whole city, the spots selected are thought to be representative for the types of urban
areas mentioned, and are therefore thought sufficient basis for the adoption of specific air quality
management measures for the whole city.
For bigger areas, air can be sampled via regularly spaced monitoring stations, supplemented by
additional stations near identified "hot spots" of man-made emissions (such as cities and industrial
zones). To generalise the findings of the individual stations, maps are produced showing lines
connecting places of equivalent or similar air pollution concentrations. These lines are called
isopleths. The generalisation is arrived at by feeding the data into air quality models, mathematical
representations of the real-world air quality conditions. By comparing model outcomes with findings
in the field, the model can be further imprved (validated).
While air quality models for one country can be useful, regional air quality models are thought to be
more appropriate to reflect transboundary pollution behaviour. However, the development of a
reliable regional air quality model that could generate useful results demands that monitoring efforts
and handling of air quality data should be unified.

7. ENVIRONMENTAL EXPENDITURES
Measures to curb emissions and improve air quality are the most important responses to this
environmental problem. Efforts by public administration, the business sector, and private households
are quite diverse, but are united by the fact that they cost money. Environmental expenditures are
therefore a useful statistic to assess a countries' efforts to reduce air pollution.
At this place, only general remarks are made on definition, scope and data availability. For more
details, the reader is referred to the chapter on Environmental expenditures.
Air pollution abatement expenditure comprises the flow of investment and current expenditure that is
directly aimed at pollution abatement and control, and which is incurred by the public sector, the
business sector, and possibly private households
Air pollution abatement activities are defined as purposeful activities aimed at the prevention,
reduction, and elimination of pollution. Air pollution abatement includes the following activities:
monitoring and regulation of atmospheric pollution, prevention of air pollution linked to the
production process, installation of non-polluting technologies (clean technologies and clean products
used in the production process), and elimination of emissions at the source (like dedusting equipment
and filters).
Data on private and public sector investments and current costs of air pollution abatement are needed
to compile the statistics. Countries often experience difficulties in identifying environmental
investments (or in identifying the environmental component of an investment) and, therefore, it is
unlikely that pollution abatement expenditure data will be available for many countries in the near
future. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is one international
agency which collects data on pollution abatement and control expenditure from its member
countries. Thus, for most OECD countries, reasonably harmonised expenditure data are available on a
regular basis. In other countries, some expenditure data can be obtained from national reports or pilot
studies. Few countries are able to distinguish between national and local government abatement
expenditure.

8. CONTENTS OF DATABASE AND PUBLICATION
8.1 GENERAL
The actual contents of a database will not be discussed in this section. Section 8.2 lists some technical
and background data of importance for the elaboration and interpretation of air data. Section 8.3
discusses suggestion for output, including the additional text that is of importance for the
interpretation and comparability of air quality data. Because the format of air quality data gathered
from various agencies may vary considerably, the NSS has to select, condense or transform them into
a format appropriate to the requirements of general statistical demands. 17
8.2 TECHNICAL AND BACKGROUND DATA
OECD (1998) recommends the following data to be collected:
Air pollution
- estimation methods and definitions related to emissions;
- trends in the stocks of motor vehicles.
Urban air quality

- number of fixed monitoring stations by type of measurement;
- measured air quality status.
Acid precipitation
- outline of monitoring system;
- description of selected areas.
Publication
Suggestions for publishing the output of the processed air quality data are specified in section 8.3. It is
advisable that the data be checked with the originating agency. Institutionalising such a practice
might prevent mistakes and preclude the embarrassment of publishing different "official data" sets
pertaining to air emissions and quality by the NSS and the originating environment agency.
Follow-up activities
A first collection of air pollution data (e.g. in a compendium) will undoubtedly uncover many
deficiencies and omissions. To remedy them, the NSS might think of the following steps:
- Improvement of current data set: Relevant information from existing data sources could be
utilised to further improve the current data set. The quality and comparability of the data might
be improved through the use of a unified approach, such as a more integrative reporting format.
17
A database should not be confused with a data bank, the latter defined as a passive storage system where data are
filed more or less in the form as supplied by the original supplier. In a database, however, data are selected according to
defined criteria and transformed following a fixed format (e.g. classifications, units), to allow easy data handling and
manipulation between files. A data bank might, as a data archive, easily turn into a data grave yard.

- Regular reporting: Data should be made available on a regular basis by the relevant monitoring
agencies to the NSS.
- Standardisation: Though the monitoring methodology is primarily the task of the environmental
monitoring authorities, the NSS may refer to the importance of utilising internationally acceptable
field and laboratory methods for monitoring (such as those of GEMS/Air). Also, the NSS should
promote the use of international United Nations statistical classifications, as employed by the
various United Nations statistical agencies (e.g. UNSD and ECE).
To ensure the regularity of flow of reliable data, the NSS should be involved in active networking
with all institutions concerned with air quality monitoring. Immediate results should not be expected
though, as air quality monitoring equipment is costly and the availability of trained manpower and
expertise for undertaking monitoring activities usually takes more time than expected.
8.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR OUTPUT
The following suggestions for statistical output are meant for a general publication prepared for a
broad audience. Publications prepared for specialists or policy makers may require a different format
and presentation. The former would be best served with extensive tables with basic data, which can
then be adapted to specific needs. The latter would require relatively condensed data (that can be
easily compared to policy goals) using graphics in order to facilitate presentation. In contrast, a
general publication might take a middle road between these two extremes, offering tables and
graphics, accompanied by text to explain the quality of the data and assisting in their interpretation.
8.3.1 Data presentation for air emissions
Emission data should be presented according to substance emitted. It should be made clear how the
data were collected (e.g. monitoring, survey or estimation), which sources were covered, and for
which areas the data are valid.
The recommended units and statistical variables to be used for air emissions are:
c. For macropollutants, tonnes (1,000 kg) or 1,000 tonnes, whichever is the most convenient unit.
d. Total emission per year (from which mean emission per day can be derived).
e. Peak day values according to season or peak activities.
Data might be presented for the whole country, regions/provinces, or selected urban areas. Table 18
is a generalised table which might be used for various substances emitted.

Example Table 18. Generalised table for air emissions

Type of source--------> Stationary Mobile
a/
Combustion Process
Production (ISIC) X X X
Traffic Not applicable Not applicable X

Households X Not applicable X
a/
Including cooking and space heating.
Note: In most cases only total traffic data are available, and no split between traffic for production and traffic by
households. Dividing the two categories often is based on additional data and simplifying assumptions. Even more difficult
is breaking up traffic data for production according to ISIC. The latter is only obligatory in satellite accounting, as NA does
not distinguish a ‘traffic sector’. Meanwhile, reporting emissions according to ISIC is important because e.g. it allows policy
makers to fine-tune their measures.
Emissions from households might deserve special attention. The absolute amounts in the total
emissions might be relatively low, but their (near ground level) impact could conceivably be high.
8.3.2 Data presentation for air quality
One may assume that air quality data are only available for a very limited amount of variables, and
merely for selected areas (such as major cities). When the data sets are comparable through time and
from place to place, condensing them should not pose serious problems. This, however, is rarely the
case. Rather, one is confronted with discontinuous research data, preliminary investigations and
inadequate reports on the effects of air pollution. Apart from ascertaining their validity, expert
judgement is needed as to whether this kind of data should be included or not (can they fill gaps in the
envisioned data framework?).
Lastly, it will be assumed that no synthesised data can be inferred from the network, i.e. data which
might be considered as representative of a whole area under study. This would call for an air quality
data presentation according to individual monitoring stations.

Example Table 19. Air pollution data for area Y
SPM SO2 Other common Additional

variables special variables
Unit Unit
RESIDENTIAL
Station 1
year
season a
season b
year
year
Station 2
Mean
INDUSTRIAL
TRAFFIC ZONE
Notes: Classification according to season refers to contrasting time periods with regard to emission pattern (e.g.
summer/winter) or prevailing weather (e.g. monsoon/dry season or contrasting wind pattern).
Relevant standards might be incorporated into the table for easy reference.
The text should contain amongst others the following elements:
- Indication of the general picture or trend;

- Explanation of possible outliers;
- Indication of main sources;
- Measures taken to improve air quality;
- Additional data from special studies.
An air quality monitoring area map should show the location of the air quality monitoring station in
relation to residential areas, industrial areas, relevant topographical features, prevailing winds (if
necessary, according to season). The accompanying text should indicate the characteristics of the
monitoring stations and the areas/activities the stations monitor.
Also, the use of line diagrams could be useful for comparing selected air quality data variables for
several years or for different areas. If comparable data for different cities can be presented, a
comparison might be made on trend, specific problems, sources, etc. Expert judgement might allow
the generation of insights beyond what the available data may indicate.

REFERENCES
Chen, B.H. et al (1990). Indoor air pollution in developing countries. World Health Studies Quarterly
vol. 43, pp. 127-136.
Commission Européenne (1994). Corinair: inventaire des émissions de dioxyde de soufre, d'oxydes
d'azote et de composés organiques volatils dans la Communeauté Européenne en 1985. Brussels.
[In French. Results of Corinair inventory for SO2 , NOx and VOC. The inventory for 1990 was published in
1995.]
DOE (1992). Inventory of Air Pollutants: Emissions in Dhaka (Annex I) (Dhaka, Department of the
Environment).
ECE (1990). ECE standard statistical classification of ambient air quality (CES/667). Geneva.
ECE (1993). Readings in environmental statistics 18 (New York, United Nations).
Economopoulos, A. (1993). Assessment of Sources of Air, Water, and Land Pollution (Geneva,
WHO).
EEA (1996). Joint EMEP/CORINAIR atmospheric emission inventory handbook.
ESCAP (1989). Regional Energy Policy and Planning Issues (New York, United Nations).
ST/ESCAP/...
ESCAP (1990). State of the Environment in Asia and the Pacific (New York, United Nations).
ST/ESCAP/917
ESCAP (1994). Guidelines on Monitoring Methodologies for Water, Air and Toxic
Chemicals/Hazardous Wastes (New York, United Nations). ST/ESCAP/1354
ESCAP (1995). State of the Environment in Asia and the Pacific (New York, United Nations).
ST/ESCAP/...
European Commission (1994a). Corinair: Technical Annexes. Vol. I: Nomenclature and Software
(EUR 12586/1). Brussels.
European Commission (1994b). Corinair: Technical Annexes. Vol. II: Default Emission Factors
Handbook (EUR 12586/2). Brussels.
Eurostat (1997). Material flow accounting: Experiences of statistical institutes in Europe.
Hinnawi, E.E. and Hashmi, M.H. (1987). The State of the Environment (London, Butterworth).
IPCC (1992). Preliminary Guidelines for Assessing Impacts of Climate Change (Oxford and
Tsukuba).
IPCC (1995). IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (Geneva, WMO). Vol. I:
Greenhouse gas inventory reporting instructions; Vol. II. Greenhouse gas inventory workbook; Vol.
III. Greenhouse gas inventory reference manual.
OECD (1991). The State of the Environment (Paris).
Rodhe, H. and Herrera, R. (eds.) (1988). Acidification in Tropical Countries. (Chichester, John Wiley
& Sons).
Shah, J.J. and Singh, H.B (1988). Distribution of volatile organic chemicals in outdoor and indoor air.
Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 22, p. 1381.
Tolba, M. (1992). Saving Our Planet - Challenges and Hopes (London, Chapman and Hall).
Tolba et al. (1993). The World Environment 1972-1992 (..?...publisher).
United Nations (1991). Energy Statistics: A Manual for Developing Countries (Studies in methods,
Series F, No.56).
UNEP (1986). Report of the 8th Session of the Coordinating Committee on the Ozone Layer Nairobi.
(UNEP/CCOL/VIII)
UNEP (1987a). The Greenhouse Gases (UNEP/GEMS Environment Library No. 1). Nairobi.
UNEP (1987b). The Ozone Layer (UNEP/GEMS Environment Library No. 2). Nairobi.
UNEP (1991). UNEP Environment Data Report (Oxford, Basil Blackwell), 3rd ed.
18
It is recommended that the reader consult ECE (1993), especially the extended US-EPA contribution (Part Three,
chapter 4) on air emission, only after becoming familiar with this chapter, the chapter on emission inventories and
Economopoulos (1993). Although the presentation o f the four country papers in this publication (Netherlands, Sweden,
United Kingdom and the United States) on air emissions is different, their essential methodology is quite similar.

UNEP (1992). Chemical Pollution: A Global Overview. Nairobi.

UNEP (1993). Environmental Data Report 1993-94.
UNEP (1993). The Impact of Climate Change (UNEP/GEMS Environment Library No. 10). Nairobi.
UNEP/GEMS (1994). GEMS/AIR Methodology Reviews, vol. 3: Measurement of suspended
particulate matter in ambient air. WHO/EOS/94.3, UNEP/GEMS/94.A.4. Nairobi.
UNEP/WHO (1991). Urban Air Pollution (UNEP/GEMS Environment Library No. 4). Nairobi.
UNEP/WHO (1994). GEMS/AIR Methodology Reviews, vol. 4: Passive and active sampling
methodologies for measurement of air quality. WHO/EOS/94.4, UNEP/GEMS/94.A.5. Nairobi.
United Nations (1984). A Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics (Statistical
Papers, Series M, No. 78. United Nations publication, Sales No. E.84.XVII.12).
WHO (1986). Health impacts of acidic deposition: report of a WHO working group. The Science of
the Total Environment, vol. 52, p. 154.
WHO (1993). Assessment of Sources of Air, Water, and Land Pollution (Geneva, WHO).
WHO/UNEP (1982). GEMS: Estimating Human Exposure to Air Pollutants (WHO Offset
Publications No. 69). Geneva.
WHO/UNEP (1988). GEMS: Assessment of Urban Air Quality . Geneva and Nairobi.
WHO/UNEP (1992). Earthwatch/GEMS: Urban Air Pollution in Megacities of the World (Oxford:
Blackwell).
WRI (1994). World Resources 1994-95.
Important sources of emissions factors:

Economopoulos (1993); ECE (1993; especially the extended US-EPA contribution); EC (1994);
EMEP/Corinair (forthcoming).

ANNEXES
ANNEX 1 MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS
Carbon dioxide
Properties: odourless and colourless gas. Natural constituent of the atmosphere (0.03% by volume). Its
concentration tends to go up, causing the greenhouse effect . It is taken up by green plants in the
assimilation process for growth and energy, and released again in decaying processes. Other sinks are the
oceans and limestone (calcium carbonate; CO 2 + CaO à CaCO3 ), where carbon dioxide is taken up in
the geological cycle.
Sources: Burning of fossil fuels; deforestation; volcanic activities.
Effects: In sheer quantities, carbon dioxide emissions exceed all those of the other air pollutants
combined. Annual global emissions of carbon dioxide are estimated at 2,600 ± 600 x 109 kg, 60% of
which is contributed by man-made activities. Although not a noxious substance, carbon dioxide has been
implicated as the main cause of the greenhouse effect.
Sulphur dioxide
Properties: colourless gas, with a pungent smell at higher concentrations.
Sources: industrial, institutional, utility, and apartment house furnaces and boilers; automobiles;
petroleum refineries; smelters; paper mills; and chemical plants. In fossil fuels, it is a natural constituent
(e.g. in low grade coal and lignite). To prevent its release (a) better fuels are to be used; (b) sulphur
should be removed from fuels; (c) flue gases should be scrubbed.
Effects: major air pollutant that causes smog. It can also, at high concentrations, affect human health
(especially among asthmatics who are particularly sensitive to respiratory tract problems and breathing
difficulties that SO2 can induce). Moreover, it can harm vegetation (especially leaves) and affect metal
surfaces. SO2 easily oxidises to sulphur trioxide (SO 3) and then be transformed into sulphuric acid
(H2 SO4 ). In this form, it can impair visibility and acidify lakes and streams. Thus, it is an important
contributor to acid rain.
Figure A.1.1. SOx emissions, 1970-1986

________________________________________________________________________
page ? [0,5 page]
Source: Tolba et al. (1993).

Nitrogen dioxide
Combustion of fossil fuels in motors and ovens oxidises both the N present in the fuel plus a varying
amount of the N naturally present in air (80% by volume). Of the several oxides of nitrogen produced,
the only two oxides with documented adverse environmental and biological effects are nitrogen oxide
(NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ). The mixture of these nitrogen oxides is commonly referred to as NO x.
Additionally, nitrous oxide (N2 O) contributes to the greenhouse effect.
Properties: NO2 is a light brown gas at lower concentrations, with a pungent smell. In higher
concentrations, it becomes an important component of the brown smog and haze that overhang many
urban areas.
Sources: produced by burning of fuels in combustion facilities such as industrial boilers, cars and trucks.
Unlike sulphur dioxide, the production of NOx is not only determined by the N-content of the fuel
because air-N may also be oxidised in the process. To burn (oxidise) fuels, air oxygen is used. Air
consists for about 80% of N2 . This nitrogen may oxidise as well at the high temperatures found in boilers
and motors. In boilers, low temperature burners may prevent this additional NOx from forming. In cars,
catalytic converters will reduce NOx to harmless N 2. Modern high compression engines produce more
NOx than older types, especially at high speeds.
Effects: one of the major pollutants that causes smog and acid rain. It can harm humans and vegetation
when concentrations are sufficiently high. In children, it may cause respiratory illnesses such as chest
colds and coughing. For asthmatics, it can cause increased breathing difficulty.
It should be noted, though, that NOx deposited on the soil can be converted into nitrate (NO 3), a fertiliser.
Thus, it may have a fertilising, as well as a acidifying, effect on oligotrophic waters and poor soils.
Figure A.1.2. NO x emissions, 1970-86

________________________________________________________________________
page ? [0,5 page]
Source: Tolba et al. (1993).
Suspended particulate matter (SPM)
Properties: a highly variable mixture of coarse particles (road dust, soil particles), fine particles including
carbonaceous aerosol (soot, diesel particles) and aerosols, resulting from the transformation of gaseous
pollutants (sulphate, nitrate, ammonium, etc.). Its properties depend on its physico-chemical composition
and its environmental pathways and fate. Thus, other compounds (e.g. polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons) may be adhered or absorbed to the surface of dry SPM. Moreover, SPM may act as
condensation nuclei for water, a phenomenon influencing the water cycle. This way, SPM droplets may
act as miniature reaction vessels for reactions taking place in a watery environment. Depending on size,
SPM may be suspended in the air for long periods of time.
Sources: industrial processes, smelters, automobiles (especially diesel), burning of industrial fuels, wood
smoke, dust from paved and unpaved roads, construction work, agricultural ground breaking, desert
areas. In industry, SPM can be largely removed by filters. In (diesel) cars, the use of permanent filters or
other devices is still in an experimental stage.

Effects: the finer SPM particles can affect breathing and the respiratory system. The SPM-10 and SPM-5
fraction 19 , which may penetrate deeply into the lungs, therefore attract a growing attention. This may
lead to increased respiratory disease and lung damage, and possibly premature death (with children, the
elderly, and people suffering from heart disorder or lung diseases, such as asthma, especially at risk).
Also, SPM damages paint, soils clothing and reduces visibility. Refer to UNEP/WHO (1994) for more
information.
Carbon monoxide
Properties: odourless and colourless gas emitted as part of the exhaust of motor vehicles, other kinds of
engines and furnaces (whenever there is incomplete combustion, preventing full oxidation to CO2 ).
Sources: the main sources are automobiles, buses, trucks, small engines and some industrial processes.
High concentrations can be found in confined spaces like parking garages, poorly ventila ted tunnels, or
along roadsides during periods of heavy traffic.
Effects: reduces the ability of blood to deliver oxygen to vital body tissues, as it binds stronger to
haemoglobin than oxygen, affecting primarily the cardiovascular and nervous systems. Lower
concentrations have been shown to adversely affect individuals with heart disease (e.g. angina) and to
reduce maximum exercise performance in young, healthy men. Higher concentrations and prolonged
exposition can cause symptoms such as dizziness, headaches, and fatigue, and may lead to death.
Lead
Properties: Lead is a heavy metal. Lead and lead compounds can adversely affect human health either
through ingestion of lead-contaminated soil, dust, paint, etc., or through direct inhalation. Thus, lead can
pose a particular risk for young children whose normal hand-to-mouth activities can result in ingestion of
lead-contaminated soil, dust and particles.
Sources: the primary sources are car motors using leaded fuels, coal combustion, smelters, car battery
plants, and the burning of garbage containing lead products.
Effects: elevated lead levels can adversely affect mental development and performance, kidney function,
and blood chemistry. Young children face higher risks due to a greater chance of ingesting lead and the
sensitivity of young children's tissues and organs to lead.
Volatile organic compounds
The acronym "VOC" is often used synonymously with "hydrocarbons" with the latter term being applied
to organic compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen (e.g. methane, CH4 ). In VOCs, other
elements may also be found. For example, in petrol (a mixture of VOCs), sulphur compounds are a
matter of environmental concern.
Sources: mainly hydrocarbon and petroleum-based products such as solvents and carburants.
Effects: for petrol, it is known that one of its constituents (benzene) is a cancer promoter. VOCs in paint
solvents may also cause dizziness and neural disorders after chronic exposure. Also, VOCs are
precursors in the smog formation.
19
Refers to the 10 and 5 micrometer (ìm) fraction, respectively. One micrometer equals 10-6 meter.

Ozone
Ozone (O3 ) is an unstable, powerfully oxidising agent with a pungent, irritating odour. It is considered a
major secondary air pollutant formed through photochemical reactions from compounds such as NO x and
VOCs. Thus, O 3 can be regarded as an indicator of photochemical pollution. Because ozone is a
chemically unstable compound (known for its readiness to get rid of one of its oxygen atoms), it is
therefore an aggressive oxidising agent that has detrimental effects on plant leaves and their respiratory
functions.
ANNEX 2 EMISSION CONTROL
2.1 Pre-combustion techniques
They include the selection of low-pollution fuels for industrial usage and consumption. While
reserves of low sulphur oil and coal are limited, the further processing of fuel to remove or minimise
the level of pollution causing compounds is widely resorted to for reducing the sulphur content of oil
and coal as well as the ash content of the latter. Distillate oils have lower S-contents than residual
fractions, and these may be destined for use in densely populated urban areas. The switching to S-free
fuels such as natural gas is also an important means of reducing air pollution emissions in some
countries. The reduction or elimination of lead additives in petrol is equally a pre-combustion control
technique. Furthermore, low emission fuels (e.g. natural gas) might be reserved for small consumers
(such as households) in urban areas, as it will not be practical for them to apply other air pollution
control strategies on a cost-effective basis.
Pre-combustion control techniques are often the simplest and most cost-effective methods of reducing
air pollution emissions, although the initial investments may appear to be high.
2.2 Combustion modification
This approach uses advanced and costly technology to reduce SO 2 and NOx emissions; however, the
acquisition and maintenance costs for these technologies may lie beyond the scope of many
developing countries. Techniques used include the use of low NOx burners and fluidised bed
combustion. In the latter case, NOx emissions are reduced and most of the sulphur is retained in the
bed as calcium sulphate, that may then be used in the production of (gypsum) building materials.
2.3 Post-combustion control
The removal of pollutants from flue gases and vehicle exhaust also requires relatively costly
equipment. Nevertheless, flue gas desulphurisation is being increasingly adopted by many
industrialised nations to reduce SO 2 emissions from power stations. There are a number of methods
for removing SPM from flue gases including settling chambers, cyclones, spray chambers, bag filters
and electrostatic precipitators. A combination of these post-combustion control techniques have been
used in certain types of industrial (e.g. larger coal-fired boilers). The use of three-way catalytic
converters to control pollutant emissions from vehicles has led to significant reductions in NOx, CO
and hydrocarbon emissions from new cars. Unfortunately, analogous post-combustion control
technology for diesel motors are as yet experimental, and not yet commercially available. As for

indoor pollution, the introduction of simple chimneys and vents to domestic stoves and heaters can
greatly improve indoor air quality in developing countries.
2.4 New processes
In recent years, new processes have been developed in several sectors of industry, which have led to
significant reductions in pollutant emissions. For example, in the case of primary production of
several non-ferrous metals, low temperature hydro-metallurgical techniques are now widely employed
in developed countries. These processes emit much smaller quantities of SO 2 compared to the
traditional pyro-metallurgical methods. The recent introduction of smaller, fuel efficient automobiles
is another example.
2.5 Energy conservation
Since the 1970s, many developed countries have adopted energy conservation measures which have
proved effective in limiting the quantities of fossil fuels consumed. Reductions in energy demand and
increased efficie ncy of energy generation, distribution, usage and consumption have all contributed to
reduced air pollution emissions.
The overall air pollution control strategies employed by many countries now have, in many cases,
been found to be effective in urban areas. However, the costs that these strategies impose are a major
limiting factor on the formulation and implementation of current as well as prospective national
pollution control policies. Because investments in industrial expansion have often been the overriding
priority in developing countries compared to environmental imperatives, one is faced with a situation
where emission reductions are more likely to be achieved in industrialised countries while air quality
conditions in the developing world continue to deteriorate.
ANNEX 3 INDOOR AIR P OLLUTION 20
3.1 General
Air quality has traditionally been viewed as referring to ambient air quality. However, the intake of
certain air pollutants may be due (to a great degree) to indoor sources, such as SPM and NOx. The single
most important source of indoor pollution in developing countries is low quality fuels used for cooking
and heating.
The most important reason for including indoor air quality in environment statistics is the need to
understand total exposure (indoor and outdoor) levels to air pollution, coupled with the fact that people do
spend considerable time indoors. At the same time, it is relatively difficult to collect meaningful time-
series data, as exposure data for ambient air conditions are usually difficult to procure. Therefore, it is
more likely that available data will only permit a limited assessment of the relative importance of indoor
20
This section is largely based upon WHO/UNEP (1988), pp. 81-88.

and outdoor air pollution sources. Among the possible sources of data are the Ministry of Health, the
Ministry of Housing and epidemiological studies that have been or are being undertaken.
Because it can be argued that women spend more time indoors than men (especially in the rural areas of
developing countries) and will mainly be doing the cooking, exposure to biomass fuel emissions is
probably the single most important occupational health hazard of housewives.
As a statistical subject, indoor air pollution can be considered as part of statistics on Human settlements
(refer to Chapter 2, Pollution general). Table A.3.1 lists various important sources of indoor and outdoor
pollutants. It is quite evident that some of these sources contribute to both indoor and outdoor pollution.
Table A.3.1. Sources of indoor and outdoor pollutants
POLLUTANTS SOURCES
predominantly outdoor
sulphur oxides coal and oil combustion, smelters
ozone photo chemical reactions
lead, manganese automobiles, smelters
calcium, chlorine, silicon, cadmium soil particulates and industrial emissions
organic substances petrochemical solvents, vaporisation of unburnt fuels
indoor and outdoor

nitrogen oxides fuel combustion
carbon monoxide incomplete fuel combustion
carbon dioxide fossil fuel combustion, metabolic activity
suspended particulate matter resuspension, condensation of vapours and combustion
products with organic substances petroleum products, combustion, paint, metabolic action, pesticides,
insecticides and fungicides
ammonia metabolic activity, cleaning products and agriculture
predominantly indoor
radon building materials (concrete, stone), water and soil
formaldehyde particleboard, insulation, furnishings, tobacco smoke
asbestos, mineral wools, synthetic fibres fire-retardant, acoustic, thermal or electric insulation
organic substances adhesives, solvents, cooking, cosmetics
aerosol of nicotine and other organic substances tobacco smoke
mercury fungicides in paints, spills in dental-care facilities or laboratories,

thermometer breakage
aerosols of varying composition consumer products

viable organisms infected organisms
allergens house dust, animal debris
Source: UNEP (1991).
3.2 Sources and consequences of indoor air pollution
In many rural agricultural communities and some urban areas of developing countries in the ESCAP
region, the most significant indoor air pollution problems stem from burning so-called biomass fuels in

indoor open fires. This primitive combustion of biomass fuels is not only a wasteful way to use energy
but it also produces severe indoor air pollution.
Biomass fuels are non-fossil fuels of biological origin like wood, agricultural waste (from coconut husks,
straw and chaff, dung, etc.). In some Asian countries, such as China, coal is widely used. Also, the use
of charcoal, though cleaner than the wood it is produced from, still causes notable quantities of NO x and
CO.
Although biomass fuels today supply a relatively small portion (10%) of global energy requirements, they
provide a cheap source of readily available energy used by many around the world. About two thirds of
the world population still depends on traditional biomass fuels for most of their energy supply.
It has been scientifically reckoned that biomass smoke contains a mixture of several hundred substances.
In addition to its major constituents, such as SPM, NO x, SO2 , various aldehydes and CO, biomass smoke
generally shows quite high levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), many of which have been
shown to be carcinogenic.
In table A.3.2, the air pollution concentration parameters can be used as an indication of the possible
seriousness of indoor air pollution. When considering the contrasting environments selected, account
should be taken of the fact that the mean actual time spent indoors might greatly exceed the time spent in
public places and in traffic areas.
Table A.3.2. Air pollution concentrations indoor and elsewhere
Indoors a/ Other WHO

environment guideline
SPM (µg/m3) 300-14,000 50-70 100-150

(public places)
NOx (µg/m3) 100-400 20-500 400 (1 hr)

(public places) 150 (24 hrs)
CO (mg/m3) 10-40 10 30 (1 hr)

(busy traffic) 10 (8-24 hrs)
Formaldehyde (µg/m3) 200-1500 50-70 100

(public places)
PAHs (ng/m3) 100-10,000 20 No guideline

(traffic area)
a/
Indoors in rural houses in developing countries.
Source: Adapted from UNEP/WHO (1988).
Table A.3.2 shows that for SPM and PAHs, the situation is quite serious and definitely presents a
health hazard. For the other pollutants, levels are quite high, but not orders of magnitude higher than
the WHO guideline, as is the case for SPM.
At present, the full dimensions of indoor air pollution-related health problems have only been roughly
delineated. Four major categories of adverse health conditions are identified in relation to high
exposure to biomass combustion products:

- Chronic obstructive lung diseases;

- Heart disease, particularly caused by pulmonary damage;
- Cancer, particularly of lung and nasopharyngeal tract;
- Acute respiratory infections, particularly in children.
In a wider context, the over-use of biomass as a fuel can be linked to several social and environmental
problems. The increasing scarcity of biomass fuels means that more and more time has to be spent for
its gathering. Moreover, it might also indicate depletion of forest stocks, the wastage of valuable
fertiliser material (manure and compost), land erosion, and desertification.
ANNEX 4 CURRENT MONITORING PROGRAMMES
4.1 National
A detailed description of national programmes and practices is not available. The GEMS/Air
programme offers the best overview; however, it is restricted to urban areas, and only a limited
number of countries are participating (UNEP/WHO, 1992). Thus, in all likelihood no extensive air
quality monitoring is being conducted outside of urban areas in developing countries (except maybe
for background readings). Moreover, it can be reasonably assumed that countries not partaking in
GEMS/Air have only limited monitoring capabilities.
The air quality monitoring capabilities of countries can be grouped into three general categories:
(a) Those with comprehensive air quality monitoring networks, providing real-time data on all major
air pollutants. The networks incorporate adequate quality control procedures to ensure that the
collected data are demonstrably valid. Examples: Mexico City, New York City, Sao Paulo, Seoul,
Tokyo;
(b) Those with marginally sufficient to adequate networks which measure only some pollutants at a
number of sites that are usually less than what is scientifically or statistically desirable. Examples:
Bangkok, Beijing, Bombay, London, Rio de Janeiro;
(c) Those with inadequate monitoring capabilities producing data of unknown quality on a limited
range of air pollutants. Examples: Buenos Aires, Cairo, Karachi, Manila, Moscow.
The last two categories of countries also often lack sufficient quality assurance mechanisms to ensure
the reliability of air quality monitoring data and information.
Figure A.4.1 summarises the capabilities for air quality monitoring and the conduct of emission
inventories for several megacities around the world.
Figure A.4.1. Capabilities of megacities for air quality monitoring
Page 36 (one page)
Source: UNEP/WHO (1992).

4.2 International
GEMS/Air is part of the Global Environmental Monitoring System, a joint effort of WHO and UNEP
which started in 1974. Thus, GEMS can be viewed as an institutional umbrella strengthening and
uniting international and national environmental monitoring activ ities. Quality and comparability of
data are among the primary concerns.
GEMS/Air is active in some 50 countries, with about 35 providing representative data sets (e.g. for
SPM and SO2 ) for major urban areas. The GEMS/Air cities were selected to provide as broad a
global coverage as possible. Also, they were selected to represent different climatic conditions, levels
of development and pollution conditions. In most cities, there are three GEMS/Air monitoring
stations, one located in an industrial zone, one in a commercial area and one in a residential area. The
data obtained from the three stations permit a reasonable evaluation of the long-term trends of average
concentrations and of minimum and maximum levels. At the moment, fairly extensive data sets are
available only for SO 2 and SPM. For the other major air pollutants, such as NO2 , CO and Pb, data
were gathered from published sources and questionnaires.
The five pollutants mentioned, viz. SO 2 , SPM, NO2 , CO and Pb, were selected for reporting because
they are:
- ubiquitous;
- emitted in large quantities;
- related to different industries and processes;
- known to cause health effects at certain threshold levels and concentrations.
In 1992, GEMS/Air widened its scope from collection of air quality data only to the collection of all
information necessary for air quality management (UNEP/GEMS, 1994), such as:
- in addition to health-related impacts, ecosystem issues will be considered;

- the range of pollutants to be monitored will be expanded to include CO, NO2 , NO, O3 and Pb (and
others where appropriate), with priority given to CO;
- better quality assurance and control procedures for environmental monitoring data (see the
GEMS/Air methodology review handbook series, 1994 onwards).
Recently, UNEP has decided to develop a new programme to substitute the GEMS programme (refer
to section 3.3).
4.3 Some data on air pollution
Figures A.4.2 and A.4.3 provide data on the global emissions of major air pollutants from man-made
sources and the contribution to emissions by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) and other countries.
Figure A.4.2. Emission of major air pollutants from man-made sources
Page 34 [0,5 page; with table full page]
Source: OECD (1991).

In the period 1970-1990, SO x emissions in the OECD countries decreased from around 65 to around
40 million tonnes. In the same period, SO x emissions from the rest of the world increased from 48 to
59 million tonnes. The sizeable reduction in the OECD countries can be attributed mainly to stricter
emission regulations, changes in energy sources (e.g. from coal to natural gas), higher fuel costs and
the introduction of energy saving technologies. The OECD countries showed, for the period 1970-90,
a decrease of CO from 155 to 125 million tonnes, against an increase in CO emissions from 40 to 52
million tonnes in the rest of the world, mainly attributable to increased automobile traffic (Tolba,
1992).
Figure A.4.3. Contribution to global greenhouse gases emissions by OECD and other countries
Page 21 [0,5 page; plus table full page]
Note: The index developed by WRI is based on annual emissions of the three major greenhouse gases (CO 2, CFCs, and CH4)
and the heat-trapping potential of each gas. The CO 2 emissions are net emissions because they take into account the
effect of deforestation on the CO 2 flux into the atmosphere. The index is expressed in CO2 equivalents (tonnes of
carbon).
Source: OECD (1991).
Owing to the adoption of air pollution control measures, levels of sulphur dioxide and particulate
matter 21 in the ambient air of cities in high-income countries are substantially lower than those in the
cities of the developing countries of the region. However, air pollution due to nitrogen oxides
remains a major problem in the developed countries. This can mainly be attributed to the fact that
gains in lowering NOx emissions have been offset by a growing car fleet.
A recent overview of air quality conditions in major cities grouped cities into 3 classes, using WHO
guidelines as the main criterion (figure A.4.4).
Figure A.4.4. Overview of air quality in twenty megacities
Page 39 [full page]
Note: The classification is based on a subjective assessment of monitoring data and emission inventories.
Source: WHO/UNEP (1992).
21
In this connection, it should be pointed out again that within GEMS/Air, extensive data sets are currently only
available for SO2 and SPM.

ANNEX 5 EMISSION SURVEYS: SOME ELEMENTS
As a survey may not be the most appropriate instrument to collect data for a preliminary assessment,
and actual conditions in a country may vary considerably, only elements for a survey form have been
collected as a check list.
5.1 Survey for production units
To facilitate the administration of surveys, it should be considered that emission surveys might be
tacked on as an additional section to existing financial/physical surveys to be accomplished by
production units. Another advantage of this approach is that more integrated data might become
available. Also, the integration of related questions on all emissions (air, water, solid waste) in one
questionnaire might be explored, as such an approach might improve data consistency.
An important consideration is "cut-off" rate for production units. Large units could be asked more
detailed questions, compared to medium-sized ones. And small units do lend themselves less to
answering technical questions. Relevant data for small units might be taken from existing surveys
(e.g. production process and physical input/output, from which emissions might be calculated with
emission factors). In practice, surveying might only be feasible for large point sources.
Basic elements to be included in a survey:
a. Name and location of plant.
Fuel combustion 22
b. Type of boiler/furnace
c. Capacity/load
d. Type of fuel
e. When available, measurement/monitoring data on actual emissions.
Process emissions
f. Type of product
g. Type of process
h. Type of waste treatment (end-of-pipe, process-integrated, etc.)
i. When available, measurement/monitoring data on actual emissions
Mobile emissions
j. Fleet of vehicles, according to type
k. Year of manufacture
l. Fuel used, per type
5.2 Car user panel
Data gathered through this type of panel might be part of a wider survey to monitor the role of cars as
one of the most important consumer goods (in terms of monetary value).
22
Because of their relative importance, the United States has surveyed electric utility plants since 1969
concerning the quantity of fuels consumed, fuel quality (i.e. ash and sulphur content of fuels), and the control
efficiencies of installed pollution abatement equipment. This survey (EIA-767) is currently administered by the
Energy Information Administration of the U.S. Department of Energy.

In the panel, part of the data might be gathered through a diary, in which the participant makes daily
entries of specified data, which might otherwise be lost from short-term memory (like mileage for the
day covered, distance per driving mode, amount of petrol bought). Panel size should be in agreement
with statistical considerations and size of the fleet. Additional data on relevant aspects regarding the
professional use of vehicles might be gathered from surveys among industrial units using cars (e.g.
type of car, variable and fixed costs, etc.).
Information to be gathered in a car use panel:
a. Name, address, occupation

b. Car use: private or professional
c. Particulars of car: type; engine type; year of manufacture; fuel used; exhaust treatment, if any;
state of maintenance
d. Diary: mileage covered for day, driving mode (urban, local, highway)
To these environmentally relevant questions, financial aspects might be added (e.g. on fixed and
variable costs), or particulars on use motives such as commuting, shopping, outings.
Surveys for industrial emissions generally have precedence over car use panels. For industrial
emissions, the survey might be an extension of existing surveys, while a car use panel in most cases
will be a new statistical endeavour. Also, precise data on car use will amount to little when no locally
valid emission factors have been established and updated on a yearly basis.
ANNEX 6 OECD QUESTIONNAIRE
(20 pages) + Addendum (16 pages).

[might be added as a full reprint]
This is an international questionnaire, and therefore of limited value in setting up national surveys. It
is doubtful whether a survey is the best instrument to gather data on air pollution.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................ i

2. ACTIVITIES AND EMISSIONS......................................................................................3

4. ROLE OF THE NSS; SCOPE OF ASSESSMENT.........................................................18

5. ESTIMATION METHODOLOGY FOR AIR EMISSIONS ..........................................20

Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page i

5.2 Combustion of fossil fuels ...........................................................................................22

6. AIR QUALITY STATISTICS.........................................................................................29

7. ENVIRONMENTAL EXPENDITURES ........................................................................36

8. CONTENTS OF DATABASE AND PUBLICATION...................................................37

Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page ii

LIST OF TABLE & FIGURES

Figure 1. Relationship of various components of air pollution ..................................................1

Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page iii

Annexes 5 and 6 are not meant for plenary discussion.

Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page iv

Figure 1. Relationship of various components of air pollution

activities à emissions à [dispersion] à concentration à deposition

Table 2. summarises the requirements just mentioned.

Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page 1

Table 2. Main elements of an air pollution control programme

Concentration Monitoring network; models

Exposure Exposure data; models

Source: After UNEP/WHO (1992).

Table 3. General PSR framework of air pollution statistics

Emissions Section 2 and Ch. Emission general

Depositions Section 3.5.2

Impacts Section 3.4 and 3.5

Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page 2

2. ACTIVITIES AND EMISSIONS

Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page 3

2.2 EMISSION SOURCES

2.2.2 Types of emission sources

The principal sources of air emissions are generally classified into:

Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page 4

a. Combustion of fossil fuels in stationary sources

Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page 5

Table 4. Number of motor vehicles

Selected countries 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988

2.2.3 Energy: general trends

Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page 6

Figure 5. Total commercial primary energy consumption in the world

Page 312 [0,5 page]

Source: ESCAP (1990).

2.2.4 General concluding remarks

Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page 7

2.3 MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS: PROPERTIES, SOURCES AND EFFECTS

The main air pollutants are:

- carbon dioxide (CO2 );

Annex 1 discusses the major pollutants in more detail.

Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page 8

Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page 9

Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page 10

GEMS/Air reached four main conclusions on pollutant levels:

More details in Annex 4, section 2.

3.2 AIR QUALITY STANDARDS

Chapter 3 Air draft January 2000 Page 11

Table 6. Summary of WHO air quality guidelines

Sulphur dioxide 500 µg m-3 10 minutes

Carbon monoxide 30 µg m-3 1 hour

Nitrogen dioxide 400 1 hour

Lead 0.5-1 µg m-3 1 year

Source: UNEP/WHO (1992).