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Iron Types (page 1), Gray & Ductile Irons

 (https://metalcastinginstitute.com) > Iron Types (page 1), G

Cast Iron Grades

For most modern automotive and consumer applications, cast

iron falls into 4 separate categories:

1. Gray Iron (this page)

2. Ductile Iron (this page)
3. Austempered Ductile Iron (page 2)
(https://metalcastinginstitute.com/iron-types-page-2-
austempered-compacted-graphite/#Austempered-Ductile-
Iron)

/
4. Compacted Graphite Iron Page 2)
(https://metalcastinginstitute.com/iron-types-page-2-
austempered-compacted-graphite/#Compacted-Graphite-
Iron)

In North America, there are 2 industrial societies that take

responsibility to organize and govern programs to regulate and
improve the process technologies:

American Foundry Society (AFS)

Ductile Iron Society (DIS)

Graphite Comparison -
Photomicrograph Studies

Gray Cast Iron - Photomicrograph Example


/
 Ductile Iron - Photomicrograph Example

Austempered Ductile Iron - Photomicrograph 

/
 Compacted Graphite Iron - Photomicrograph

Cast iron is an alloy of iron-carbon-silicon containing more than

2% carbon that is poured into a mold containing a negative of
the desired nal shape.  The mechanical properties and
material behavior are dependant on the graphite morphology,
which is formed in the iron matrix by process thermal controls
and elemental additions to obtain the desired graphite form.  All
cast irons solidify by means of a complex eutectic reaction that
involves Fe, C and Si.  There are also in uences from Cu, Mn, S
and P.

Gray Iron

Gray cast iron is the simplest, most common and lowest cost form of
cast iron in the world.  The iron microstructure is characterized by the
“Flake Graphite” qualities in the forms of:  a.) Type, b.) Size and c.)
Martrix.


/
 Gray cast iron has excellent castability and machinability qualities,
making it a high value for parts that can be heavy.  In addition, gray
iron has superior damping and thermal heat transfer, making it
excellent for automotive brake systems.  While it is strong, it is also
brittle.

Flake Graphite Types

Gray cast iron is by far the most common of the cast irons. 
Next to steel, it is the most widely used engineering alloy.  In the
1st century of the of the automobile industry, it was the material
of choice for cylinder blocks, heads and many other power-train
components.  The name derives from the appearance of the
fracture surface, which is gray.  In gray cast iron, the graphite
solidi es as interconnected akes, as illustrated above in the 3D
microscopy with a scanning electron microscope.  The

clustered shapes of the graphite has been compared to potato
/
chips being glued together at a central location.  The central
point is the original graphite nucleus.  Each cluster of akes
de nes a eutectic cell in the gray iron.  Eutectic cells are
somewhat analogous to grains in other metals.  The strength of
the iron is improved with ner cell sizes.

The form of graphite in gray cast iron is an important factor in

determining the properties of the alloy.  Graphite shape and the
size can vary markedly due to the cooling rate and the alloy
content.  The most common form, as described in the
preceding paragraph, is is referred to as Type A.  The ve types
of graphite in gray cast iron are classi ed b ASTM. 

Type A Flake Structure

Type A graphite has a uniform distribution and a random orientation. 

It generally produces the best properties and is typically speci ed for
powertrain components.

Gray Iron - Type A

Type B Flake Structure


/
Type B graphite appears as rosettes with a random orientation.  It
occurs most often in near-eutectic alloys that are improperly
inoculated and contain very few graphite nuclei.  Type B graphite is
often found at the casting surface, where it is otherwise Type A.

Gray Iron - Type B

Type C Flake Structure

Type C graphite occurs in hypereutectic irons (CE greater than 4.3) in

which graphite forms as the primary phase.  This primary graphite is
called Kish graphite.  It’s presence reduces tensile properties, by may
be desireable for some specialist applications.


/
 Gray Iron - Type C

Type D Flake Structure

Type D graphite occurs as a result of interdendritic segregation in

rapidly cooled irons.  It consists of small, randomly oriented akes
between the austenite dendrites.  Type D may lead to higher tensile
properties, but may be di cult to heat treat because of the
segregation.

Gray Iron - Type D

Type E Flake Structure

Type E graphite is similar to type D, but with oriented akes between

the austenite dendrite arms.  It most often occurs in irons with very
low carbon equivalent.


/
 Gray Iron - Type E

Flake Graphite Size

In addition to graphite type, ASTM has established

speci cations for graphite size.  This is determined by
comparing the number of akes in a 100X magni cation
photomicrograph with a standard chart.  

Gray Iron Mechanical Properties

Generally, gray iron has low strength and very low ductility.  The
graphite akes act as tiny internal cracks which create stress

intensi cation.  This makes it very easy for cracks to propagate
/
through the material, which inhibits strength, ductility and
impact strength (fracture toughness).  Gray iron is speci ed by a
class number, which corresponds to the nominal tensile
strength of the alloy.  For example, a class 30 gray iron, which
was typical for an engine block, has a nominal tensile strength
of 30,000 psi (207 MPa).  Because gray iron has very low
ductility, yield strength and percent elongation, these properties
are rarely measured or speci ed.  With the YTS and UTS being
so close (less than 1% elongtion), gray iron is classi ed as a
“brittle material”.  Another way of specifying gray iron is by the
hardness of the material.  The Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) published a material standard for Cast Iron, SAE J431
(https://www.sae.org/standards/content/j431_201801/), to
account for both tensile and hardness properties.  In addition,
each automotive OEM has their own set of standard to govern
gray iron properties and speci c test methods required to
measure the material quality.  

Strength and Hardness

The strength and hardness of gray iron is varied by at least four

main factors:

1. Carbon Equivalent
2. Alloy Content
3. Innoculation
4. Solidi cation Rate

The tensile strength decreases rapidly with the increasing

Carbon Equivalent.  

Carbon Equivalence (CE)

For cast iron the Carbon Equivalent (CE) formula is used to

understand how alloying elements will affect the casting behavior. It
is used as a predictor of strength in cast irons because it gives an
approximate balance of austenite and graphite in nal structure. 
/
 CE = %C + 0.33 (%Si) + 0.33 (%P) – 0.027 (%Mn) + 0.4 (%S) 

CE < 4.3%, hypoeutectic behavior during solidi cation

CE = 4.3, eutectic behavior during solidi cation
CE > 4.3%, hypereutectic behavior during solidi cation

Tensile vs Carbon Equivalent (CE)

Effect of silicon additions to the Fe-C phase

diagram

Alloy Content

/
The most effective elements for Gray Iron are Carbon and
Silicon.  When the objective is to cast the iron at the eutectic to
prevent iron carbides from forming, it is possible to use ladle
additions of Silicon to modify the molten alloy so that a eutectic
equivalent is always achieved.  Using the CE calculation and
con rming the appropriate amount of Ferro-silicate additions, a
wedge block is used to con rm the gray iron is at the desired CE
level.

Carbon & Silicon

Compared to common steel grades, the carbon content in gray

iron is about ten times higher.  With scrap steel being a large
part of the melt charge for an iron foundry, carbon usually has
to be added at some point in the process, either in the main
charge or after the iron is in the molten state.  Since there is
very little carbon in the scrap steel charge materials, the
metallurgist needs to take into account all of the metallic
charge materials (steel, scrap iron, pig iron) in the main
furnace.  Carbon raising additions depend heavily on the
melting method (cupola melting with coke will elevate carbon),
the amount of silicon used and the availability of low-cost
graphite.   However, as the iron foundry industry transitions from
cupola to inductive melting with similar high additions of steel
scrap in the charge, alternative ladle, in-stream or in-mold
additions to achieve Type A akes in Gray iron are required.

Inoculation Methods

With the switch to inductive melting, foundries carefully charge

theire induction ladles with carefully weighed amounts of scrap
steel, scrap iron and the more expensive pig iron.  Today, higher
amounts of lower carbon steel can be accommodated by
adding a ferrosilicon (FeSi) inoculants.  The inoculation process
involves an addition of between 0.05 to 1% of a specialized FeSi
alloy containing controlled amounts of one or more carefully
selected elements to further re ne the graphite morphology. 

/
The explanation of how these carefully selected elemental
additions, including Al, Ca, Ba, Sr, Ce, La, Mn, Bi, S, O, and Zr can
be found on Table 1.0 Structural Effects of Elemental Additions
to Cast Iron, shown below.  In addition to raising the Si level, the
inoculant provides nucleation sites that promote graphite
precipitation and growth, together with iron solidi cation based
on a stable Fe-C system. 

When Carbon needs to purchased for addition, the addition

material is generally in the form of graphite.  Graphite additions
frequently come from carbon electrodes, previously used in
steel arc melting furnaces.

Purpose of Inoculation

The purpose of inoculation is to promote heterogeneous

graphite nucleation by introducing elements that form suitable
substrates that will act as nuclei and initiate the desired
graphite formation.  By promoting a stable eutectic
solidi cation, inoculation enables the C to come out of solution
in a favorable form of graphite and not as iron carbide.

With careful control, the use of an inoculate addition will help:

Avoid formation of carbides (cementite)

Promote the formation of graphite
Reduce segregation
Reduce shrinkage
Improve machinability
Promote a homogenous structure
Increase ductility

The effect of inoculation is presented in the gure below

(Inoculation Effect), where the cooling curves for an un-
inoculated iron are indicated with a black-dotted line and an
inoculated iron are indicated as a blue solid line. 


/
Inoculation can take place either at tapping, in the ladle, in the
stream during casting, or even inside the mold.  Inoculating
alloys are available in granular form, packed in a wire, or
cast/pressed into various shapes. The size is adjusted based on
the point of addition and the time and temperature available for
dissolution into the molten iron.  As a rule, additions can be
reduced when inoculation takes place as close as possible to
the pouring of iron into the mold, which is why “in-stream”
inoculation with FeSi granules is the most common method of
adding.

Inoculation Effect

In the cooling curves for an un-inoculated iron (black-dotted line) and

an inoculated iron (blue solid line),  The affect is shown as a
reduction in the degree of undercooling before the graphite forms
(red arrow).  Inoculation also prolongs the formation and growth of
graphite, thereby increasing the solidi cation time (green arrow).

Effect of inoculation on cooling curve


/
 Chill Test Shapes - Results indicate the stability of iron composition
and treatments to resist carbide formation.

Chill Wedge - indicates how much white iron forms from the amount of
carbon, silicon, Inoculation e ciency and pouring temperature. This
test has been replaced by the Thermal Analysis test shown above.

In the commercial production of cast iron, both grey and ductile

iron are inoculated, but gray iron generally requires smaller
inoculating additions, depending on the iron alloy composition,
melting method and charge make-up.  Ferrosilicon inoculation
transforms the structure from  undercooled graphite (Type E
graphite in gray iron) to fully ake or spheroidal graphite, as
shown below.


/
 Effect of inoculation on graphite structure in grey and ductile iron

Other Elements

Since the strengths of cast irons depends on content of ferrite

against the pearlite content, alloying elements that suppress the
formation of ferrite and increase the amount of pearlite are
added for increasing the strength.  To study the affects, a
number of elements have been studied and general descriptions
provided.  Alloying elements such as chromium (Cr),
molybdenum (Mo), and tungsten (W) are used for this purpose. 
These elements promote carbide formation and will increase
the iron hardness.  Please refere to Table 1.0 Structural Effects
of Elemental Additions to Cast Iron, shown below, for additional
information.

Ductile Iron

Ductile (also called Nodular and Speroidal Graphite) Iron is stronger

than gray iron, is tougher and is much less expensive to cast complex
parts than steel forming.  The iron microstructure is characterized by
the “Nodularity” (roundness) quality, nodule size and nodule density
(nodules per mm²).

Ductile iron is considered a tough material for chassis parts (like

steel) when the morphology is ferritic.  While the strength can be 
increased by using alloy additions to promote pearlite around the
/
 nodules, the resulting % Elongation is reduced.

Summary

Ductile cast iron is stronger and more ductile (tougher) than

gray cast iron.  It is formed by treating a relatively high carbon
equivalent iron with a nodularizing agent such as magnesium
(most common) or cerium to cause graphite spheres that grow
during solidi cation.  The most common automotive
applications are in parts that require high strength and
toughness when undergoing stresses related to thermo-cycling
or impact.  The part types include:  crankshafts, camshafts,
exhaust manifolds, steering knuckles, suspension arms,
differential gear carriers, spring buckles and the like.  In the
plumbing and piping industry, using ductile iron was a big
achievement in providing piping, joints and valves that were less 
/
expensive than the malleable iron alternative.  With all of these
applications, ductile iron is growing in applications, often
displacing gray iron designs so that weight savings can be
achieved with the improved mechanical properties.

Historical Background

In the 1948 AFS annual conference a new iron morphology was

introduced to the conference attendees:  Ductile Iron.  The
creator of this new material is generally credited to Keith Mills,
however 3 people are listed on the original 1949 Patent
assigned to the International Nickel Company (INCO):  Keith
Dwight Millis, Albert Paul Gagnebin and Norman Boden Pilling. 
In their patent (US2485760A) the inventors are credited for
inventing a “Cast Ferrous Alloy for Ductile Iron Production via
Magnesium Treatment”.  

As the patent holder for Ductile Iron using a magnesium

treatment, INCO promoted the bene ts of the material
properties and introduced Ductile Iron to designers and
engineers by distributing technical literature and conducting
seminars.  As knowledge of the properties and economies of
Ductile Iron spread, the usage increased dramatically
throughout the fties and early sixties.  After the termination of
INCO’s promotion of Ductile Iron in 1966, Ductile Iron market
growth continued to outperform other ferrous castings, but as
the engineers and designers who bene ted from the early
promotional efforts of INCO retired they were replaced by a new
generation that wasn’t familiarized about the process
technology from their academic training.  For this reason the
Ductile Iron Society (DIS) was established to provide training
and close the knowledge gap with new generations of
metallurgists, design engineers and manufacturing engineers.

Desulfurization 
/
The processing of ductile iron is of extreme importance in the
determination of its properties.  The initial step in the
production of ductile iron is to remove excess sulfur from the
molten iron.  Sulfur is sometimes added to gray iron because it
promotes the formation of graphite akes.  For this reason, it
must be nearly eliminated from the ductile iron melts.   There
are some foundries that process both gray and ductile iron from
the same charge material, so any internally recycled scrap gray
iron would have sulfur to remove.  Removal of Sulfur involves
the addition of CaO or some other agent.  It should be
mentioned that foundries that specialize in only processing
ductile iron may have the opportunity to avoid extensive
desulfurization procedures, but they should always be
monitoring for it when measuring the composition chemistry.

Nodularization using Magnesium Conversion

The unique step in the processing of ductile iron is the

nodularization of graphite.  This is the step where magnesium is
added to the molten alloy to create a residule Mg level of
approximately 0.03-0.06%, which is the amount necessary to
cause graphite to form spheroids.  Unfortunately, the Mg
vaporizes at a temperature well below the melting temperature
of nodular iron, so innovative conversion methods have been
developed to achieve the conversion:

Open Ladle Conversion

Mg conversion recovery = 20-25%

Desulfurization of base alloy prior to conversion is important
Reaction is violent and not recommended for safety
Very smoky during conversion

Sandwich Ladle Conversion

Mg conversion recovery = 40-45%

Desulfurization of base alloy prior to conversion is important

/
 Reaction is violent but reduced because the ladle is deeper &
has a treatment pocket
Still smoky during conversion & needs a vent hood

Tundish Ladle Conversion

Mg conversion recovery = 60-65%

Desulfurization of base alloy is less critical
Tundish cover contains the reaction
Smoke is reduced by 90% from open ladle conversion

George Fischer Converter Method

Mg conversion recovery = 70% (magnesium chips used)

Desulfurization of base alloy is generally not necessary
Enclosed conversion vessel contains the reaction
Safe for large ladle volumes

In-mold Conversion

Mg conversion recovery = 70% (magnesium chips used)

Desulfurization of base alloy is less critical
Sand mold contains the reaction
Generally combined with an auto-pouring ladle to regulate
ow

Magnesium Conversion

Tundish ladle conversion is the most common conversion method

and considered safe:
60-65% Mg recovery, low fumes, reduced C loss.

There are other conversion methods with varying degrees of safety

and magnesium recovery e ciency:  Open Ladle Conversion (20-25%
Mg recovery), Sandwich Ladle Conversion (40-45 Mg recovery),
George Fischer Converter (70% Mg recovery), In-Mold Conversion
(75% Mg recovery) 
/
 Tundish Ladle - cross-section

Magnesium Fading

Another issue with nodularization is the fading of Mg over time,

which is the tendency of the Mg to gradually evaporate (or
oxidize) out of solution when the ladle surface is in contact with
air.  When the Mg fades out of the alloy composition, the
nodularity is reduced and the mechanical properties will be
unexpectedly different.  To prevent fading in an open ladle, the
alloy must be poured within a xed period of time (generally 10-
12 minutes).  However, with an enclosed auto-pouring station,
this time limit can be extended to an hour if an inert cover gas is
used to prevent melt contact with air, thereby preventing
Magnesium oxidation.

Inoculation 
/
The nal step before pouring is the inoculation, which is also
done by the same methods as gray iron.  As described in the
gray iron section, Ferrosilicon alloys are commonly added to the
melt just prior to pouring to provide locations for graphite
nucleation.  Better and later inoculation methods will produce a
ner nodule distribution and high nodule density (nodules per
mm²).  Nodule counts of 200 or more are often speci ed for
thinner sections, but these higher counts are hard to achieve in
thick or heavy sections.

Ductile Iron Nodule Density Comparison Chart (100x)

Ferrite vs Pearlite Graphite Structures

Because of the high elongation rates achievable for as-cast

ferritic  grades of ductile iron, automotive designers responsible
for safety critical chassis structures like to specify ductile iron. 
To the automotive designer, ductile iron is considered a high-
value material options because it is lower in cost than
alternatives such as forged steel, forged aluminum, or even
solution heat treated aluminum castings.  With high elongation
and toughness properties associated with as-cast ductile iron
structural parts, vehicle chassis designers have a low cost
production process that enables their designs to pass strict
crash testing requirements.  However, when these same 
/
designers are considering how to reduce overall vehicle weight,
they’re now starting to specify ducile iron grades that are higher
in strength.  However at the same time, the designers are also
demanding high ductility, as measured by % Elongation with
routine production tensile testing.  Therefore, we now have iron
grades that rely on some amounts of pearlite in the iron
morphology to increase the YTS, but still maintain > 8%
Elongation.  Therefore, careful analysis of iron morphology must
be combined with mechanical property testing, so that the alloy
chemistry can be tightly controlled to yield expected results
after specimens are extracted from as-cast parts.

Ductile iron castings used for automotive chassis hardware.

Metallographic Analysis

The ability to assess ductile iron microstructures in the foundry

is particularly important with using alloy compositions where
Tin (Sn) or Copper (Cu) are being added to the alloy for the
purpose of elevating pearlite formations around the graphite
nodules.  Interpretations of these types of photomicrographs,
and their correlation to the mechanical properties are very
important to establishing meaningful alloy chemistry limits as

the iron is melted and poured into the production line. /
 Microstructure of 2.5 mm plates: unalloyed – left, and alloyed with 0.5%
Cu - right. Nital etched.

Image Credit for above microstructure images:

Stefanescu, Doru M., et.al, “The Metallurgy and Tensile
Mechanical Properties of Thin Wall Spheroidal Graphite Irons”, 
International Journal of Cast Metals Research, 2003, Vol. 16
Nos 1-3.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260037434_The_Met
allurgy_and_Tensile_Mechanical_Properties_of_Thin_Wall_Sphe
roidal_Graphite_Irons
(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260037434_The_Me
tallurgy_and_Tensile_Mechanical_Properties_of_Thin_Wall_Sph
eroidal_Graphite_Irons)

Pearlitic Ductile Iron

When elongation properties aren’t as important as the YTS and UTS,

controlled additions of Cu and Sn are commonly used to promote the
formation of pearlite around the graphite nodules.  The amount of
formed pearlite has been found to be proportional to the improved
tensile strengths, with an exponential decay in the % Elongation.

Image credit:
Ductile Iron Society gure 3.16

https://www.ductile.org/didata/Section3/Figures/p g3_16.htm
/
 (https://www.ductile.org/didata/Section3/Figures/p g3_16.htm)

DIS gure 3.16 Tensile Properties vs Cu and Sn additions

Industry Speci cations

In the chart shown below, the Society of Automotive Engineers

(SAE) publishes a nice chart where alloy additions are used to
modify the structure from 100% Ferrite to increasing levels of
pearlite in the iron morphology.  SAE classi es the materials by
the UTS (for a minimum expectation) and the expected %
Elongation.  As illustrated in the DIS gure 3.16, the %
Elongation decays exponentially, while the mechanical
properties increase logarithmically.  


/
Image credit for chart above:
Ductile Iron Society – SECTION XII. SPECIFICATIONS
https://www.ductile.org/didata/Section12/12intro.htm
(https://www.ductile.org/didata/Section12/12intro.htm)

Tensile Property Testing

A ductile iron foundry needs to be able to properly test tensile

specimens more carefully than a gray iron foundry. 
Assessment of ductile iron to any governing engineering
speci cation will require measurement of YTS, UTS,
%Elongation, Charpy Impact specimens and Brinell hardness. 
So, in addition to performing spectrographic and metallographic
analysis, the foundry must have an accurate tensile tester.  

Determination of YTS (Yield Tensile Strength)

With the demand for high tensile strengths and minimal loss in
ductility, as measured by % Elongation, careful attention must
be given to tensile testing as a part of the production process. 
We now have iron grades that rely on some amounts of pearlite
in the iron morphology to increase the YTS, but still maintain >
8% Elongation.  Therefore, careful analysis of iron morphology
must be combined with mechanical property testing, so that the
alloy chemistry can be tightly controlled to yield expected
results after specimens are extracted from as-cast parts.  With
this in mind, determining the YTS based on a 0.2% offset 
method must be based on the use of accepted software-based /
interpretation.  Furthermore, all testing labs associated with the
measurement of tensile properties for a given product category
should be comparing results with “round-robin” forms of
testing.  All labs involved should demonstrate reasonable
correlation between facilities and operators.

The De nitive Guide to Metals Tensile Testing…

Testing…

Supporting Information:

Table 1.0 Structural Effects of Elemental

Additions to Cast Iron

Element
Type

Effect During Solidi cation

Effect During
Eutectoid Reaction

Aluminum
.
Antimony
.
.
Bismuth
.
. 
/
Boron ≤ 0.15%
.
Boron > 0.15%
.
Chromium
.
.
.
Copper
.
Manganese
.
Molybdenum
.
Nickel
.
Silicon
.
Tellerium
.
.
.
Tin
.
.
Titanium < 0.25%
.
Vanadium

Strong  Graphitizer
.
Little Effect in amount used
.
Carbide promoter, but not carbide former
.
Strong graphitizer
. 
Carbide stabilizer
. 
Strong carbide former. Forms complex carbides which are very stable
/
.
Mild graphitizer
.
Mild carbide former
.
Mild carbide former
.
Graphitizer
.
Strong Graphitizer
.
Very strong carbide promoter, but not stablizer
.
Little effect with amount used
.
Graphitizer.
.
Strong carbide former

Promotes ferrite and graphite formations

.
Strong pearlite stabilizer
.
.
Very Mild pearlite stabilizer
.
.
Promotes graphite formation
.
Strong pearlite retainer
.
Strong pearlite former
.
.
.
Promotes pearlite formation
.
Pearlite former

.
/
Strong pearlite former
 Strong pearlite former
.

Mild pearlite former

.
Promotes ferrite and graphite formation
.
Very mild pearlite stabilizer
.
.
.
Strong pearlite retainer
.
.
Promotes graphite formation
.
Strong pearlite former

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(https://metalcastinginstitute.com/cast-iron-automotive-
applications/) |
Iron Casting Processes (https://metalcastinginstitute.com/iron-
casting-processes/)
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