European Journal of Soil Science, June 2013, 64, 357–373 doi: 10.1111/ejss.

12013

Soil structure and greenhouse gas emissions: a synthesis

of 20 years of experimentation

B. C. Ball
SRUC Crop and Soil Systems Research Group, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK

Summary
Soil structure affects microbial activity and thus influences greenhouse gas production and exchange in soil.
Structure is variable and increasingly vulnerable to compaction and erosion damage as agriculture intensifies
and climate changes. Few studies have specifically related the impact of structure and its variability to
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions over a wide range of soils and management treatments. The objective of this
study was to draw from research in Scotland, Japan and New Zealand, which examined how soil structures
affected by wheel compaction, animal trampling, tillage and land-use change influence GHG emissions in order
to help identify key controlling properties. Nitrous oxide (N2 O) is the main focus, though carbon dioxide (CO2 ),
methane (CH4 ) and nitric oxide (NO) are included. Gas emissions were measured by using static chambers
in the field or incubated intact cores. Poor structure, measured as small relative gas diffusivities and air
permeabilities, restricted aeration, resulting in N2 O emission or consumption dependent on mineral nitrogen
contents. Structural damage (identifiable using the Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure) was especially important
near the soil surface where microsites of microbial activity were exposed and aeration was impaired. Moist,
well-aerated soils favoured CH4 oxidation and CO2 exchange. N2 O emissions were not necessarily increased
in anaerobic soils because of possible N2 O consumption and microbial adaptation. Soil matric potential,
volumetric water content, relative diffusivity, air permeability and water-filled pore space are relevant indicators
for N2 O and CH4 flux and aeration status. As pore continuity and size are so relevant, pore-scale models are
likely to have an increasing role in understanding mechanisms of GHG production, transport and release.

Introduction work at the Scottish Agricultural College (SAC) and subsequently

Soil properties as influenced by climate and cropping have
major effects on the emission and exchange of greenhouse
gases (GHGs). These effects arise through rainfall, soil porosity,
temperature, soil organic matter, soil mineralogy, pH and
soil nitrogen (N) and regulate emission at a range of scales
(Beauchamp, 1997). Soil temperature, moisture, mineral N content
and organic matter content affect GHG emissions directly
through their influence on microbial activity. Soil structure and
other physical properties such as texture and drainage influence
emissions indirectly by their influence on the above properties
(Skiba & Ball, 2002). Although the processes of GHG production
and emission are mainly biological, soil physical conditions
influence biology by their effect on the physical environment
(Gregorich et al., 2006).
Smith et al. (2003) reviewed the interactions between soil
physical properties and biological processes, drawing on early
Correspondence: B.C. Ball. E-mail: bruce.ball@sruc.ac.uk
Received 20 March 2012; revised version accepted 27 October 2012
at the University of Edinburgh. They emphasized the importance
of gas diffusivity for methane (CH4 ) oxidation rate and the
influence of temperature and water-filled pore space (WFPS) on
nitrous oxide (N2 O) production by denitrification and on N2 O
emission. Conen et al. (2000) subsequently identified the three
key factors for N2 O emission from agricultural soils as WFPS,
temperature and topsoil mineral N content. Others have shown the
importance of soil temperature and moisture content for fluxes of
the transient greenhouse gas nitric oxide (NO) (Skiba et al., 1997)
and of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) (Franzluebbers et al., 1995).
Soil structure has a major influence on soil physical properties.
In this review, I concentrate on results from 20 years of research
in Scotland conducted mainly by SAC, but also including research
from collaborative studies at sites in Japan and New Zealand. In
later years this was facilitated by the development of automated
chambers, which allow automated collection of gas samples
for simultaneous analysis of multiple gas efflux from soils
(Scott et al., 1999), and of Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure,
which allowed description of structural conditions (Guimarães
et al., 2011).

© 2013 The Author

Journal compilation © 2013 British Society of Soil Science 357
358 B. C. Ball
Early work, pioneered by K. Smith, revealed the importance of
aggregate size distribution, inter-aggregate porosity and gas diffu-
sivity in governing the extent of anaerobiosis and rates of denitri-
fication within soil (Smith, 1980). Soil temperature increases can
enhance N2 O production through the development and expansion
of anaerobic microsites as respiration and consequently oxygen
demand increase (Smith et al., 2003). Gas exchange is regulated
by the ability of oxygen to enter the soil and CO2 and denitri-
fication products (N2 and N2 O) to escape (Figure 1). Gas diffu-
sion rates within and between aggregates are clearly important
drivers of these processes. Using measured values of gas diffu-
sion rates and N2 O concentrations in the soil profile, Arah et al.
(1991) attempted to calculate N2 O emissions in soils of southeast
Scotland using Fick’s Law. This proved unsuccessful because of
significant consumption of N2 O in the upper 5 cm of soil. Con-
sumption occurs when microsites are sufficiently anaerobic for
denitrification to reduce N2 O to N2 , thereby making the soil a
sink for N2 O (Chapuis-Lardy et al., 2007). Arah et al. (1991) also
found that the concentrations of N2 O were significantly affected
by soil type, tillage treatment and nitrate fertilizer application rate.
Soil structure is clearly of great importance but is difficult to
quantify. It has components of form (the arrangement of pores
and solids), stability (the ability to retain structural form after
stress) and resilience (the ability to recover structural form) (Kay
& Angers, 1999). Descriptions of structural quality often do not
include all of these components and are usually quantified from
measurements of soil physical properties such as porosity, water
retention, air permeability, hydraulic conductivity, gas diffusivity,
Figure 1 Gas movement and exchange in the soil pore system.
© 2013 The Author
Journal compilation © 2013 British Society of Soil Science, European Journal of Soil Science, 64, 357–373
aggregate stability and penetration resistance. These properties can
be combined to derive indices of soil structure. For example,
gas diffusivity and air permeability can be divided by air-
filled porosity to yield indices of pore continuity (Ball et al.,
1988). For permeability, if the air-filled porosity corresponds with
macroporosity, as in most measurements made in winter when the
soil was close to field capacity (−6 kPa matric potential) and the
macroporosity was drained, pore continuity can be interpreted as a
measure of the pore organization (Blackwell et al., 1990). This is
because pore organization represents that part of the permeability
that is dependent on the arrangement and shape of the macropore
space rather than the total air-filled pore volume.
Continuity indices can also be derived from the changes in flow
or diffusion with air-filled porosity through changes in soil-water
content or field variability (Ball et al., 1988). The porosity of
the sample when diffusion and air flow are zero is an estimate
of blocked porosity, which Schjønning et al. (2002) interpreted
as a measure of the complexity of the structural units. Soil
structure can also be described from measurements or observations
of the component aggregates and pores using micromorphology,
scanning or, more generally, from visual assessment (Shepherd,
2009; Guimarães et al., 2011). Soil structure varies between soils
because of texture and within soils through land use and soil
management, specifically tillage and compaction.
Here I summarize experimental and modelling work over
the past 20 years at SAC to identify relationships between
soil structure and GHG fluxes. As N2 O is the most powerful
greenhouse gas emitted by the soil and because substantial
emissions are from wet soils, which are common in Scotland,
N2 O assessments are emphasized. These are mainly related to
measurements linked to soil aeration, viz. gas diffusion, air
permeability and porosity measurements and derived indices of
pore continuity and visual observations of soil structure.
Data are taken from experiments on tillage and compaction
and from assessments of spatial variability in farmer’s fields,
which were near Edinburgh in Scotland on the Bush Estate or in
East Lothian where the climate is mesothermal maritime. Details
of these sites are summarized in Table 1. Collaborative work is
also reported from the National Institute of Agro-Environmental
Sciences, Tsukuba, Japan, and from Lincoln University, New
Zealand. I describe methods of assessment of soil structure
and GHG measurement and their use for (i) quantifying the
change in soil structure with depth and how this can influence
the concentration gradients of N2 O, CO2 and CH4 in the soil
and their consequent emission, (ii) relating spatial variability of
N2 O emission within the field to driving variables, (iii) relating
differences in N2 O and NO emission between soil types to driving
variables and (iv) relating differences in N2 O and CO2 emissions
with visually assessed structural quality. The data are summarized
and reassessed in order to draw new conclusions about inter-
relationships between soil structure and GHG emissions and their
scale of operation. Key properties controlling consumption and
emission of N2 O and CH4 are identified and recommendations
made for assessing these properties. Finally, advice is provided

35
30
25
zres
Elevation (z)
20
15
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20
Horizontal distance (x or y)
25
Figure 2 Estimation of z-residuals. The thick line represents the soil
surface. The dotted line is the constant slope. zres is the deviation of
elevation from the constant slope. Both the gradient and the residuals are
exaggerated. Redrawn from Ball et al. (1997a).
for soil management to obtain relevant soil structural properties
to minimize GHG emissions.
Methods of soil structural assessment and GHG
measurement
Bulk density, volumetric water content (VWC), air-filled porosity,
relative diffusivity and air permeability were measured at most
sites using intact cores retained within sampling cylinders 50-
mm long and 73-mm diameter (51-mm long and 50-mm diameter
in Japan) during subsequent treatments and measurements. Vane
shear strength and cone penetration resistance were measured at
some sites. When assessing spatial variability, the surface micro-
relief was measured as the deviation of elevation z from a constant
slope, the z residual, zres , and was assessed with an electronic
theodolite (Figure 2). Nearness of straw was assessed by mapping
clumps of straw around the small core-type chambers described
below.
In the laboratory, gas diffusivity was determined by measur-
ing the diffusion of 85 Kr, or latterly SF6 , through a soil core
mounted between twin gas chambers (Ball et al., 1981). In Japan,
gas diffusivity was measured from the change in concentration
of atmospheric oxygen as air diffused through the core towards
a chamber fixed to one face initially full of nitrogen, based on
the method of Taylor (1949). Core diffusivities are expressed rel-
ative to those in free air. Diffusion pore continuity was derived
by dividing relative diffusivity by the air-filled porosity at which
diffusivity was measured. Air permeability was measured in the
same cores. Air flow in response to a small pressure difference
(< 500 Pa) applied to one of the gas chambers was measured with
a soap film bubble meter or digital flow meter with the pressure
monitored by a micro-manometer (Ball et al., 1981). Permeability
pore continuity was derived by dividing air permeability by the
air-filled porosity at which air permeability was measured. Visual
soil structural quality in topsoil layers was scored using the Visual
Journal compilation © 2013 British Society of Soil Science, European Journal of Soil Science, 64, 357–373
Soil structure and greenhouse gas emissions 359
Evaluation of Soil Structure (VESS) (Guimarães et al., 2011). In
this test a small access pit 25 × 25 × 25 cm is dug and a spade-
ful is taken from one face and laid on the ground. The soil is gently
broken up to reveal any layering and the soil structure. With the
aid of a photographic key, topsoil layers are scored according to
aggregation, porosity and root growth on a scale from Sq1 to Sq5.
Sq1 is friable and the best structure and Sq5 is compact and worst.
The surface flux of N2 O or CH4 was measured in the field
using static closed chambers enclosing an area of 0.126 m2 as
described by Clayton et al. (1994) for N2 O and by Dobbie
et al. (1996) for CH4 . Automated chambers enclosing an area
of 0.5 m2 were also used with a battery-driven actuator lid-
30
closing system; samples were pumped into aluminium tubes (Scott
et al., 1999). At smaller scales, N2 O emissions were assessed in
76 mm diameter × 50 mm long core rings linked together by
a rubber sheath in pairs end-on and covered with plastic caps
as described by Ball et al. (2000). The upper ring acted as a
gas collection chamber. The lower ring was used to extract a
core, which was sub-sampled for measurement of mineral N, pH
and, owing to the associated loss of soil, wet bulk density and
gravimetric moisture content. Other cores were extracted from
the field, put into Kilner jars and gas samples taken 1 hour after
closure of the jar. In Japan, samples for NO flux measurement
were removed shortly after closure of the jar and analysed with a
chemiluminescence NOx analyser. Samples of N2 O, CO2 and CH4
were taken from headspaces and analysed by gas chromatography
(Scott et al., 1999).
Factors controlling nitrous oxide emission and uptake
Tillage and compaction
N2 O production as a result of denitrification is mainly from
‘hot spots’ of activity. These develop around pieces of organic
matter, which fuel increased microbial activity (organic), or
within aggregates, or centres of aggregates with restricted
diffusivity (structural) (Ambus & Christensen, 1994). The size
and distribution of these hot spots can be influenced by tillage,
residue incorporation and compaction. At Bush A (Table 1),
where reduced tillage plots had been ploughed and sown to
grass for the first time in 26 years, N2 O consumption occurred
when mineral N content was small, typically 1.9 and 2.4 μg
g dry soil−1 nitrate and ammonium, respectively (Ball & Clayton,
1997). At a location where consumption was substantial, relative
diffusivities were small (Figure 3). N2 O concentrations in the soil
were least at 0–10-cm depth and greatest at 24-cm depth and
did not relate to N2 O surface flux. Thus restriction of transport
from the sites of likely production of N2 O from the buried organic
residues at 15–25-cm depth may have increased the likelihood of
N2 O consumption by reduction to N2 at anaerobic microsites, as
suggested by Arah et al. (1991) from earlier work at this site.
Conditions were warm (soil temperatures of 8–9◦ C at 10-cm
depth) and wet (WFPS averaged over 0–30-cm depth of 67%)
and thus suitable for depletion of N from the organic residues
(Hojberg et al., 1994).
© 2013 The Author
 Table 1 Location, study type, treatments, crop, soil and rainfall at the field sites in Scotland

Average annual
360 B. C. Ball

Site Location Study type Treatments Crop Soil rainfall / mm References

© 2013 The Author

Bush A Bush Estate, Tillage and N2 O uptake Site of former long-term Grass (emerging) Gleysol 850 Soane & Ball (1998)
Edinburgh tillage experiment,
ploughed and re-sown
former reduced tillage
plots
Bush B Bush Estate, Tillage and N2 O and Tillage experiment Spring barley Gleysol 880 Vinten et al. (2002)
Edinburgh CO2 emission No-tillage, deep ploughing
and conventional
ploughing
Bush C Bush Estate, Spatial variability of Compaction experiment Winter barley Cambisol 880 Ball et al. (2000)
Edinburgh N2 O emission along
a transect
North Berwick A East Lothian Spatial variability of Compaction experiment Winter oil-seed rape Gleyic cambisol 610 Ball et al. (2000)
N2 O emission along
a transect
East Lothian East Lothian Spatial variability of Thirteen fields along a 9-km Winter barley From Eutric 630–770 Skiba & Ball (2002)
N2 O emission along transect on 11 contrasting cambisol to
a transect soil types Mollic fluvisol
Glencorse Near Bush Estate, Spatial variability of Field Second year grass Gleysol 880 Ball et al. (1997a)
Edinburgh N2 O emission within
a regular grid
East Linton A East Lothian Spatial variability of Field Winter wheat Gleysol 610 Ball et al. (1997a)
N2 O emission within
a regular grid
Balbeggie Perthshire Spatial variability of Field under organic carrots Spring barley undersown Eutric cambisol 665 Ball & Crawford (2009)

Journal compilation © 2013 British Society of Soil Science, European Journal of Soil Science, 64, 357–373
compaction and N2 O
and CO2 production
within a soil profile
North Berwick B East Lothian Visual structure and N2 O
and CO2 emission
East Linton B East Lothian Visual structure and N2 O Field with a gradient of
and CO2 emission
Gullane East Lothian Methane uptake and
land use
the previous season
Field with a gradient of
structural quality
structural quality
Fields and woodland
with peas, grass and clover
Residues of a crop of Eutric cambisol 610 Guimarães et al. (2012)
Brussels sprouts (Brassica
oleracea)
Residues of a wheat crop Mollic fluvisol 610 Guimarães et al. (2012)
Wheat, set aside and Luvic arenosol 610 Ball et al. (1997b)
deciduous woodland

0 (a)
Flux / g N2O-N ha-1 day-1
-1
-2
-3
3 Nov 5 Nov
Date
0 in the air-filled porosity through the soil profile can help the pre-
(b)
50
100
Depth / mm
150
200
Production location
250
Consumption location
300
0.00 0.01 0.02
Relative diffusivity
Figure 3 Nitrous oxide flux from soil at Bush A after ploughing of
formerly reduced tillage plots (a) and soil gas diffusivity measured at
locations showing either net emission or uptake of N2 O (b). Error bars
are ± SEM. Drawn from data contained in Ball & Clayton (1997).
The flux measurements made by Arah et al. (1991) at Bush A
were limited in extent and had small values of about 1 g N2 O-
N ha−1 day−1 . Measurements at the tillage experiment at Bush B
(Table 1), established at a nearby site on the same soil type directly
on former grass paddocks, were more detailed and numerous. Here
the no-till treatment gave very large fluxes of N2 O (Figure 4) in
the second year of the experiment, with marked peaks after heavy
rainfall events in the 6-week period after fertilizer application (Ball
et al., 1999). WFPS was about 90% (Figure 5), yet gas diffusiv-
ity and porosity (Figure 5) were about the same as those reported
by Arah et al. (1991) at the same soil water potential. The small
diffusivity did not hamper the rapid emission of N2 O because
the sites of production were close to the soil surface, as shown
by very large (around 300 μg l−1 N2 O) concentrations at 5-cm
depth reported by Ball et al. (1999). Subsequent measurements of
Soil structure and greenhouse gas emissions 361
N2 O flux at the upper and lower faces of intact cores taken near
the soil surface revealed that these very small diffusivities with
WFPS >80% could result in blockage of the continuous inter-
aggregate air-filled porosity. This was accompanied by very large
fluxes of N2 O at the upper face (4.2 mg N2 O-N m−2 hour−1 ), cor-
responding to emission from the soil surface (Ball et al., 2008).
Thus a downward escape route for N2 O needs to be provided
by continuous macropores so that N2 O can accumulate lower in
the profile where it is less likely to influence direct surface flux
(Schmid et al., 2001). The N2 O is reduced to N2 by denitrifica-
7 Nov 10 Nov tion, or is removed by dissolution or entrapment within the soil
water (Clough et al., 2005). Knowledge of concentration of N2 O
diction of N2 O fluxes (Schmid et al., 2001) by applying Fick’s
law of diffusion. However, this approach also demands knowl-
edge of the distribution of gas diffusivities with depth, as well as
the profile distribution of mineral N content and soil temperature.
The method works only in the top 50 cm of soil (Schmid et al.,
2001) and is limited by the degree of stratification of microbial
enzyme activity and chemical reactivity (Venterea & Stanenas,
2008). Nevertheless, soil structure and other physical factors such
as texture, surface sealing and drainage status have an important
influence on the balance between diffusive escape of N2 O and its
further consumption (Chapuis-Lardy et al., 2007).
The large fluxes at Bush B were also attributed to the no-till
treatment being applied directly to the sprayed-off grass sward,
which provided an undisturbed source of readily mineralizable N
rich in carbon; crop growth and N uptake in the no-till treatment
were also delayed in the cooler, more compacted soil (Ball
et al., 1999).
Severe animal trampling, simulated by a mechanical hoof, of
a New Zealand grass/clover paddock treated with bovine urine
0.03 0.04
resulted in sustained N2 O fluxes, which were almost three times
greater than with no trampling (Table 2). Fluxes in the sandy loam
soil were attributed to denitrification because of the large WFPS
and were particularly large after irrigation (Ball et al., 2012). The
large N contents in the urine, the abundant carbon in the long-
term sward and the high temperatures meant that soil physical
and structural properties were major drivers of N2 O emission.
Soil structure overall was good with Sq of about 2 (Table 2),
though it was significantly poorer under trampling, which smeared
and destroyed the aggregate structure and porosity of the top
5 cm. Although bulk density was not affected, air permeability
and permeability pore continuity (Table 2) were significantly
decreased. This restricted aeration is in the layer where most of the
sites of production were considered to be located. The presence
of disrupted aggregates of very compacted soil is likely to have
increased emission (Uchida et al., 2008), as did the destruction of
much of the sward by trampling into the soil, which would have
increased mineral N availability for denitrification.
Organic carrot production involves considerable tractor traffic
for the many management operations, including mechanical and
hand weeding. Residual compaction damage was clearly visible
in the previous crop at Balbeggie (Scotland) under a former
© 2013 The Author
Journal compilation © 2013 British Society of Soil Science, European Journal of Soil Science, 64, 357–373
362 B. C. Ball

2500 30

25
2000
No Tillage
Plough to 300 mm
N2O Flux / g N2O-N ha-1 day-1

Plough to 200 mm 20

1500

Rainfall / mm
15

1000

10

500
5

0 0
01/05/1997

02/05/1997

04/05/1997

06/05/1997

08/05/1997

13/05/1997

18/05/1997

22/05/1997

27/05/1997

01/06/1997

05/06/1997

10/06/1997

15/06/1997
Date

Figure 4 Nitrous oxide flux and rainfall from the tillage experiment at Bush B, 1997. Fertilizer (180 kg N ha−1 ) was applied on 9 April.

tractor ‘tramline’ route (Figure 6a,b), both in the topsoil and upper related to soil properties (Table 4) (Ball et al., 2000). Neverthe-
subsoil (about 30 cm depth). Here structure was very poor and less, in the non-compacted soil, correlations indicated that physi-
the structure score was Sq5 because the soil consisted mostly cal factors were as important as chemical factors in determining
of very large, compact clods with minimal macroporosity. The N2 O flux. No significant relationships were found with physi-
poor structure also resulted in large moisture contents and vane cal properties in the compacted soil. However, irrespective of
shear strengths (Table 3) which, combined with the presence of compaction, N2 O flux increased with soil compaction, wetness
straw used to protect the former carrot crop, resulted in anaerobic and nearness to residues because principal component regression
conditions, as shown by the grey-blue appearance of the soil below indicated correlations with increasing cone resistance, wet bulk
the straw layer (Figure 6a). This was confirmed by the large N2 O density, proximity to straw and with decreasing air permeability.
emissions from cores taken at 15–20-cm depth (Table 3). The As with Beechgrove, these experiments revealed that N2 O produc-
soil was considerably more compacted than in the mid-growing tion, consumption and transport processes varied markedly with
season in the previous year (Figure 6c) when the structure score depth (over a few cm) near the soil surface (Ball et al., 1997a).
was Sq3, a mixture of porous aggregates from 2 mm to 10 cm At a larger scale, the importance of the combination of bulk
diameter with moderate macroporosity.
density and clay content in determining N2 O emission in spring
on soils of contrasting types from the East Lothian transect is
Spatial variability and soil type shown in Figure 7 (Skiba & Ball, 2002). Bulk density influenced
flux more than the clay content. However, this relationship did
In the spatial variability experiments, N2 O flux correlated with
mineral nitrogen content (Table 4) only at sites where variability not hold at other times of sampling when emissions were smaller
was assessed in a grid (Glencorse and East Linton). Denitrification and likely to have been more influenced by the previous crop and
was considered to be the main production process for N2 O at when the test crop was not well established.
Glencorse. The largest N2 O emissions were associated with areas Subsequent measurements on undisturbed cores in two of these
of a few cm2 to a few m2 lying below the average slope of the field soils of contrasting texture, North Berwick B and East Linton
(Ball et al., 1997a). The influence of physical factors on flux was B, revealed little influence of structure on N2 O emission in
indicated indirectly by the correlation with negative z residuals the silty clay (Figure 8), but in the sandy loam, N2 O emission
at East Linton, where negative z residuals correlated significantly increased markedly in soils of poor structure (Sq4 and 5). This
with permeability pore continuity, WFPS and air-filled porosity. occurred despite the silty clay having larger, greyer aggregates.
This highlights the importance of a depression-centred pattern of This contrasts with other work where soils with a large sand
denitrification and soil physical properties, as also observed by content usually have a poor potential to emit N2 O (Włodarczyk
Pennock et al. (1992). et al., 2011) and soils with a large clay content have a greater
In the transects at the smaller scale at Bush C and North potential to emit N2 O (Rochette et al., 2008). Nitrous oxide may
Berwick A, wide spatial variation in flux was again not well have been reduced to N2 in the anaerobic silty clay.

© 2013 The Author

Journal compilation © 2013 British Society of Soil Science, European Journal of Soil Science, 64, 357–373
 Soil structure and greenhouse gas emissions 363

(a) (b) Relative diffusivity (c) Air permeability / µm2

WFPS / %
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0 100 200 300 400
0 0 0
NT DP
P DP NT NT DP
P P
5 5 5

10 10 10
Depth / cm

15 15 15

20 20 20

25 25 25

30 30 30

(d) Air-filled porosity / m3m-3 (e) Diffusion pore continuity (f) Permeability pore continuity
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0 250 500 750 1000
0 0 0

NT DP NT DP P NT
P
5 5 P
5

10 10 10
Depth / cm

DP
15 15 15

20 20 20

25 25 25

30 30 30

Figure 5 Soil physical properties and pore continuity indices from the tillage experiment at Bush B, at −6 kPa soil water potential. Data are means over
sampling occasions in April, May and July 2007. NT = no-tillage, DP = ploughed to 300 mm and P = ploughed to 200 mm depth. Data are means over
sampling occasions in April, May and July 2007. Error bars are ± SEM.

In the undisturbed core samples from Japan, N2 O fluxes were
larger from the silty loams, the soils with greater clay contents
(Table 5). As with other soils where mineral nitrogen supply is
not limiting, the N2 O flux near saturation was greatest where
the diffusion pore continuity was poorest. In Ibaraki soil, the
smaller N2 O flux near saturation than at −5 kPa water potential
was attributed to a lack of nitrification because of the large
WFPS produced by soil slumping. In contrast to N2 O, nitric
oxide (NO) flux was greatest from the sandy loam and loam soils
and at −5 kPa. This would be expected as the source of NO is
nitrification.
In most of these sites, denitrification is taken to be the main
source of N2 O flux. However, aerobic and anaerobic microsites
can develop within the same aggregate and nitrification can
become a substantial contributor to N2 O flux even at relatively
large moisture contents (Stevens et al., 1997). Most of our results
indicate N2 O sources close to the soil surface. However, N2 O
can be produced at depths of 20–25 cm where a soil structure
with preferential pathways allows transport of applied fertilizers
by rainfall to below the rooting zone. This may be emitted at the
surface or go into solution to be emitted elsewhere (Müller et al.,
2004). Water infiltration may also transport and trap N2 O in the
subsoil, which can be released at the surface as the soil dries
out or it can dissolve (Clough et al., 2005). This dissolved N2 O
may be further reduced to N2 but may also be taken up from the
soil in roots, leading to N2 O emission through plant transpiration
(Chapuis-Lardy et al., 2007). If dissolved N2 O enters agricultural
drainage water it may be rapidly released to the atmosphere when
the drainage water exits the soil (Reay et al., 2003).
Factors controlling carbon dioxide emission
Carbon dioxide is produced by numerous microbial processes and
emission results mainly from a mixture of decomposition and
heterotrophic respiration (Singh et al., 2010). Several researchers
have discovered the quick release of CO2 in the 1 or 2 days
immediately after ploughing (Reicosky, 1997), which we also
observed at Bush B (Vinten et al., 2002). This corresponds to the
flush of microbial CO2 released from the large voids created by the
tillage (Reicosky, 1997). At the same site we also observed later
only minor differences in CO2 fluxes between tillage treatments, as
is typical (Soane et al., 2012). However, the automated chamber

© 2013 The Author

Journal compilation © 2013 British Society of Soil Science, European Journal of Soil Science, 64, 357–373
364 B. C. Ball

Table 2 Trampling effects on cumulative N2 O flux over a 10-week period, visual evaluation of soil structure quality score (Sq), dry bulk density, volumetric
water content, water-filled pore space, total and air-filled porosity, air permeability and permeability pore continuity at Lincoln University, New Zealand

LSD Significance
Property Depth / m Nil Trampled (P = 0.05) level (P )

Cumulative nitrous oxide flux / kg N2 O-N ha−1 13.0 33.6 9.2 < 0.001
Sq score 0–0.25 1.8 2.2 0.2 < 0.001
Dry bulk density / t m−3 0–0.05 0.96 1.00 0.05 ns
Volumetric water content / m3 m−3 0–0.05 0.45 0.46 0.01 < 0.05
Water-filled pore space / (%) 0–0.05 0.76 0.81 0.03 < 0.01
Total porosity / m3 m−3 0–0.05 0.59 0.57 0.02 ns
Air-filled porosity / m3 m−3 0–0.05 0.14 0.11 0.02 < 0.01
Air permeability / μm2 , back-transformed means and LSRatios 0–0.05 94 24 1.82 < 0.001
Permeability pore continuity, back-transformed means and LSRatios 0–0.05 693 288 2.00 < 0.05
(see footnote)

ns = not significant. Except for Sq score, soil properties were measured on three occasions. Data were averaged across times by calculating the area
under the curve using the trapezoid rule, then dividing by the total number of days. Air permeability and pore continuity were log10 -transformed, with
back-transformed means presented above. For the last two variables the back-transformed LSD (5%) is presented; this is the LSRatio (5%), or ‘Least
Significant Ratio (5%)’; two treatment means differ significantly at P = 0.05 if their ratio (larger/smaller) is greater than the LSRatio (5%). Data are
from Ball et al. (2012).

allowed detection of marked diurnal variations in CO2 fluxes,
which reflected soil temperature at 50-mm depth (Ball et al.,
1999). Franzluebbers et al. (1995) also reported longer-term
influences of soil temperature and moisture on CO2 evolution.
Carbon dioxide emission at Bush B decreased substantially in
1997 after heavy rainfall, possibly because poor gas diffusivity and
air-filled porosity (Figure 5) restricted respiration and increased
anaerobic conditions (Ball et al., 1999).
Carbon dioxide flux was not affected by the residual compaction
at Balbeggie (Table 3) or the poor soil structures at East Linton
B (Figure 8). CO2 flux was greatest in the best structure in the
sandy loam at North Berwick B (Figure 8), presumably as a result
of the loose, well-aggregated structure providing good aeration.
Ruser et al. (2006) observed no influence of soil moisture content
on CO2 fluxes in soils of differing compaction status, except when
the soil was close to saturation (> 98% WFPS).
Factors controlling methane uptake
Atmospheric CH4 is oxidized in aerobic soils by methanotrophs,
which Ball et al. (1997b) observed to be often most active
in the 50–100 mm soil layer during core incubation of soils
from Gullane. Clearly, soil physical conditions are important
regulators of CH4 uptake in this layer (Dörr et al., 1993), with
reasonably good relationships between CH4 oxidation rate and air
permeability and gas diffusivity (Figure 9) (Ball et al., 1997b,c).
This is often the uppermost transport-limiting layer below the
surface layer of loose organic matter, residues or peat. However,
CH4 oxidation at some sites from throughout Europe was poorly
related to gas diffusivity (Figure 9b) because of the influence
of pH, moisture, temperature and nitrogen and organic matter
type and content. The dependence of CH4 oxidation on moisture
content is less variable than N2 O emission. Dunfield (2007)
describes a hump-shaped dependence with optimum oxidation at

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6 Compacted soil (a and b) from a profile in the location of a former tramline used in carrot production at Balbeggie, Perthshire. (a) Is from 0
to 20-cm depth and (b) is from 25 to 40-cm depth. Less compacted soil from 0 to 20 cm in the same area in the previous season under carrots is shown
in (c).

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 Soil structure and greenhouse gas emissions 365

Table 3 Nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide fluxes in cores taken from a more important. There is some conflict over how important soil
soil profile cutting across a former tramline used in carrot production, physical properties are to greenhouse gas production. For example,
loam, Balbeggie, Perthshire Gregorich et al. (2006) consider that differences in gas production
between tillage regimes depend mainly on physical properties
Location in soil profile
whereas Lee et al. (2006) found that field-scale variability of GHG
Average of emissions was controlled more by biochemical properties than
Depth / Below all other SE of other physical ones. In an extensive study over 27 sites in Germany,
cm tramline locations locations
Jungkunst et al. (2006) found no nationwide correlation between
Nitrous oxide flux / 2–7 50 73.8 14.3 N2 O emissions and N application, soil C, soil N, soil texture
g N ha−1 day−1 15–20 720 260.8 85.5 and pH. Regularly water-logged soils had small emission factors
Carbon dioxide flux / 2–7 44 49.0 4.5 whereas well-aerated soils in regions subject to regular frost had
kg C ha−1 day−1 15–20 33 50.3 5.0 large ones. They attributed these effects to biological adaptation
Vane shear strength / 29–32 >125 87.0 8.0 to mean site conditions, with different microbial communities
kPa reacting differently to a given set of N2 O driving variables. This
Soil water content / 0–10 64.3 38.1 1.4 may be worth testing in studies involving marked disturbances
g 100 g−1 10–20 29.4 31.3 2.0
in soil condition by compaction, tillage, change in moisture and
20–30 22 25.8 0.8
addition of organic material, which are unlikely to provide time
30–40 19 22.6 0.7
40–50 24.1 22.7 1.3
for microbial adaptation to changed habitats.
In our studies, the properties of the topsoil layers are important
for GHG exchange. For N2 O, the 0–50 and 50–100-mm layers
Data are from Ball & Crawford (2009). were important, especially under no-tillage, minimum tillage
and intensive grassland. One layer may mainly regulate N2 O
20–50% WFPS, bordered by a zone of diffusion limitation at production while the other may mainly determine emission (Ball
greater water contents and a zone of desiccation stress at smaller et al., 1997a). The 50–100-mm layer appears to be particularly
water contents. important for CH4 oxidation, particularly in forest soils where the
Air permeability was a better indicator of CH4 oxidation 0–50-mm layer is loose and unlikely to restrict gas flow. Although
than relative gas diffusivity at the agricultural site at Gullane gaseous exchange is not related directly to the topsoil appearance,
(Figure 9a) but, over all sites, relative diffusivity gave the better the Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure is useful in allowing
relationship (Figure 9b). This may in part be due to the difficulty identification of layers that restrict gas exchange or are likely to
in taking cores of good enough quality for air permeability be anaerobic. These zones are where further measurements of soil
measurement from the forest sites. Expressing gas diffusion properties related to aeration status and mineral nitrogen might be
and air permeability as continuity indices did not give any assessed.
improvement in the relationship to CH4 oxidation. Large values
of pore organization in the forest sites at similar air-filled porosity
to agricultural sites indicate large, well interconnected macropores Soil physics
(Blackwell et al., 1990). Cluster analysis of all variables of soil The two main physical factors influencing GHG emissions are
physics and chemistry related to methane oxidation from all soil moisture and temperature. Methane uptake and CO2 emission
sites resulted in the sites being split into four groups, mainly are less dependent on soil moisture than N2 O emission. Müller &
according to soil physical conditions. One of the extreme groups Sherlock (2004), working on soils in Germany and New Zealand,
corresponded to the driest and coarsest textured soils and the other found that 75% of all N2 O emissions occur at > 60% WFPS
corresponded to the wettest and finest textured and structured soils and 80% occurred between 10 and 15◦ C. Much of the influence
(Ball et al., 1997c). of compaction on N2 O emissions results from increased WFPS
(Ruser et al., 2006; Ball et al., 2008): WFPS is often used as an
Recommendations for assessing controlling factors indicator of soil aeration status. Dobbie & Smith (2001) found a
linear relationship between WFPS and mean N2 O flux for a given
Structural status
soil type in grasslands in Scotland.
Structure can override the influence of texture in regulating gas Soils with different bulk densities (and thus compaction status)
exchange, mainly because of its substantial influence on soil contain different volumes of soil and water at a given WFPS,
water content and pore continuity in soils of the same type. giving different relationships between WFPS and N2 O emissions
Nevertheless, texture also determines the size of structural units (Castellano et al., 2010; van der Weerden et al., 2012). Nitrous
and thus structural hot spots of microbial activity. There is no oxide fluxes in incubated cores from Bush B were very large
clear evidence that larger aggregates result in greater N2 O fluxes (2–8 mg N2 O-N m−2 hour−1 ) at −1 kPa (Ball et al., 2008, data
than do smaller ones. The compaction status of the soil matrix not shown) and at −5 kPa matric potential in Japanese soils
and the presence and distribution of organic material are probably (Table 5). Castellano et al. (2010) found that maximum fluxes

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 366 B. C. Ball

© 2013 The Author

Table 4 Significant correlations of various soil, surface relief and residue factors with N2 O flux, expressed on a log basis, for several sites

Bush C North Berwick A

Location Glencorse East Linton A November 1995 April 1996 November 1997
Grassland Winter wheat Winter barley Winter barley Winter oil-seed rape
Experimental treatment Compacted Zero compaction Compacted Zero compaction Compacted Compacted and loosened Zero compaction
Arrangement Grid Grid Transect Transect Transect Transect Transect Transect Transect
Number of sampling points 84 84 25 25 25 25 19 19 19
Separation / m 1–39 0.2–7 0.1–2 0.1–2 0.1–2 0.1–2 0.1–2 0.1–2 0.1–2

Log N2 O soil concentration 0.214 N N N N N N N

Log NO− 3 -N (0–5 or 0–10) 0.297 – – – – 0.43 – – –
Log NO− 3 -N (5–10 or 0.48 −0.271 – – – – – – –
10–20)
Log NH+ 4 -N (10–20) 0.362 – – – – – – – –
pH (0–5 or 0–10) – – – – – 0.42 – −0.49 –
pH (5–10 or 10–20) – – – – – – – 0.56 –
Water content (0–5) – – – – – – – 0.47 –
Wet bulk density (0–5) N N – – – 0.59 – – –
Wet bulk density (5–10) N N – – – – – 0.73 –
Log air permeability – – – – – −0.53 – – –
(0–5)
Log air permeability – – – – – −0.41 – – –
(5–10)
Straw nearness N N 0.48 – – – – 0.56 –
Cone resistance (0–10) N N – −0.41 – 0.65 – – –

Journal compilation © 2013 British Society of Soil Science, European Journal of Soil Science, 64, 357–373
Cone resistance (10–20) N N – – – 0.46 – – –
Cone resistance (21–30) N N – – – – 0.47 – –
z residual – −0.219 N N N N N N N

Correlations shown in normal, italic and bold type are significant at P < 0.05, 0.01, 0.001, respectively. Numbers in brackets refer to depth of sampling, 0–10 and 10–20 cm depth at Glencorse,
0–5 and 5–10 elsewhere. Blank cells indicate no significant correlation. N = not determined. From the transects, wet bulk density and gravimetric moisture content were measured instead of WFPS
and dry bulk density because the cores were also used for determination of soil chemical properties. Data are from measurements in grids and transects originally presented in Ball et al. (1997a)
and Ball et al. (2000).
 Soil structure and greenhouse gas emissions 367

3 of the timing of N2 O fluxes across contrasting soil types. van der

Weerden et al. (2012) found that of the four aeration indicators
Log N2O emission / g N m-2 h-1

including relative diffusivity, volumetric water content (VWC)

2 R² = 0.4224* and WFPS, matric potential was the best related to N2 O emissions.
However, matric potential is difficult to measure in the field and
they found that the second best property explaining N2 O emissions
was VWC, as also observed by Farquharson & Baldock (2008).
1 In contrast, relative gas diffusivity was found to be a better
‘water factor’ for explaining N2 O emissions than WFPS in a
Danish tillage experiment (Petersen et al., 2008; Mutegi et al.,
0 2010). Relative diffusivity also relates to nitrate and carbon
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
availability for denitrification (Petersen et al., 2008). If the
(-1.97 + 2.57 x bulk density (g m-3) + 0.015 x % clay)
relationship between air-filled porosity and relative diffusivity
Figure 7 The joint influence of soil bulk density and clay content on N2 O is known then relative diffusivity can be estimated using
emissions in May from 13 sites along the 9-km transect in East Lothian, measurements of air-filled pore space. Relative diffusivity can
1997. Re-drawn from Skiba & Ball (2002). also be calculated from information on water release using
a model (Chirinda et al., 2010). However, this may exclude
3000 effects such as cracking and the opening of unusually wide
(a) Sandy loam Silty Clay
macropores, which can profoundly increase pore continuity and
influence GHG emission (for example the Ibaraki soil shown
Cumulative N2O flux / g N2O-N ha -1

2500

in Table 5). Aeration status is governed by a wide range

2000 of physical, chemical and biological factors, one or more of
which may be limiting, and which can be heavily influenced
1500 by compaction (Stȩpniewski et al., 1994). Thus ‘water factor’
properties of relative diffusivities, volumetric water content or
1000 WFPS need to be interpreted in terms of mineral N content,
temperature and C availability for use as aeration indicators
500
through their influence on oxygen consumption. It is also
important to remember the influence of scale. For example, from
0
Sq2 Sq3 Sq4 Sq5 field measurements Jungkunst et al. (2006) found site-specific
trends in the relationship between N2 O emission and aeration
250
(b) status; these were the reverse of what might be expected because
Sandy loam Silty Clay of biological adaptation of the soil microbial community to site
Cumulative CO2 flux / kg CO2-C ha -1

200 conditions and the occurrence of N2 O emissions from well-aerated

soils being increased by freeze-thaw cycles.
150

Pore scale modelling

100
50
0
Sq2
Figure 8 Nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide emissions accumulated over
18 days during incubation of undisturbed cores of sandy loam (North
Berwick B) and of silty clay (East Linton B), 2009. Samples were initially
treated with 100 kg NO3 –N ha−1 and then maintained at −6 kPa soil
water potential, corresponding to field capacity. Error bars are ± SEM.
of N2 O occurred within a narrow range of soil matric potential
of −1.9 to −4.5 kPa, corresponding to a wide range of 63–98%
WFPS. They suggested that matric potential is a strong predictor
The importance of pore continuity has been demonstrated, though
consideration of the individual measurements of relative diffu-
sivity, air permeability and air-filled porosity may be sufficient
without combining them into continuity indices. The relevance
of air-filled pore size was shown by the consistent relationship
Sq3 Sq4 Sq5 between maximum N2 O emissions and matric potential demon-
Structure score
strated by Castellano et al. (2010). The smaller intra-aggregate
pores influence the size of anaerobic zones whereas the larger
inter-aggregate macropores (Figure 1) influence the exchange of
oxygen at the boundaries of aggregates and the exchange of GHGs
with the atmosphere. Uchida et al. (2008) showed that the com-
paction status of aggregates is perhaps as important as their size,
presumably because of the restriction on the size and volume of
the intra-aggregate pores. The strong influence of inter-aggregate
pores was shown by van der Weerden et al. (2012), who found
that a poorly drained soil gave small N2 O emissions because

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368 B. C. Ball

Table 5 Cumulative N2 O and NO emissions from intact cores incubated over 16 days and associated soil properties in Japanese upland soils close to
saturation

Location Tsukuba, Honshu Shikoku Mikasa, Hokkaido Ibaraki, Honshu

Soil type Umbric Andosol Eutric Cambisol Eutric Fluvisol Eutric Fluvisol
Texture Loam Sandy loam Silty loam Silty loam

Soil water potential Near saturation −5 kPa Near saturation −5 kPa Near saturation −5 kPa Near saturation −5 kPa
Cumulative N2 O emission / mg N m−2 66.2 17.9 77.4 11.3 703.6 24.9 28.2 261.2
Cumulative NO emission / mg N m−2 18.8 75.0 8.2 98.9 8.7 27.4 2.0 23.4
Volumetric water content / m3 m−3 0.59 0.48 0.51 0.27 0.51 0.41 0.54 0.45
Water-filled pore space / % 80 66 84 45 86 70 93 81
Bulk density / Mg m−3 0.70 0.72 1.05 1.05 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.17
Diffusion pore continuity 0.01 0.14 0.001 0.81 0.004 0.03 0.5 0.41
Saturated conductivity / m s−1 6.1 ×10−6 N 3.4 × 10−5 N 6.3 × 10−7 N 5.6 × 10−7 N

Samples were treated with 120 kg NH4 -N ha−1 before saturation or drainage. N = not determined. Data are from McTaggart et al. (2002).

(a)
(b)
Figure 9 Methane oxidation rate in relation to (a) air permeability in soils
under different agricultural uses at Gullane and (b) gas diffusivity at a
grassland compaction experiment in Norway, at forest sites in Denmark,
Sweden and Germany and at Gullane. The upper graph was redrawn from
Ball et al. (1997a).
the presence of macropores provided good drainage and pore
continuity.
Pore-size distribution can be interpreted from water release
characteristics, which change with aggregate size distribution,
which itself is often a function of tillage (Gupta et al., 1991).
Schurgers et al. (2006) consider that pore models are superior to
aggregate models for anaerobiosis (Smith, 1980) and respiration
because they allow the discrimination of inter-aggregate and intra-
aggregate pores and are applicable in media without aggregates
such as peats or single-grained sandy soils. The model of
Schurgers et al. (2006) uses the whole range of pore size classes,
based on the soil water retention curve, and offers the possibility
of a dynamic simulation of soil moisture content to simulate gas
fluxes in real time.
The occurrence of blocked air-filled macropores (shown by zero
gas diffusivity or zero air permeability) near saturation is of great
importance. In such cases there can be large surface fluxes from
grassland (Table 2) (Ball et al., 2012) or no-tillage (Figure 4) (Ball
et al., 2008). Adoption of the idea of functional porosity proposed
by Arah & Ball (1994) may help in understanding production and
emission processes. In this model, the air-filled porosity is divided
into three functional categories: arterial, marginal and remote.
The continuous pores are called arterial and contribute directly
to the diffusion or flow of air in the soil along a concentration
or pressure gradient. Marginal porosity is formed by a series
of branches, loops and dead-ends lying off the arterial pores,
which contribute little to conduction of air along a gradient.
Remote or blocked pores are completely disconnected. The pores
embedded in the matrix next to the arterial pores are called
marginal or blocked (Schjønning et al., 2002). Blocked air-filled
arterial pores near saturation (as above) hinder aeration whereas
a significant content of marginal pores is beneficial for aeration
of sites of microbial activity (Schjønning et al., 2002). Marginal
and blocked pores may store significant amounts of N2 O. Clough
et al. (2000) examined the release of N2 O from cores amended
with nitrate, which were flushed with water and then broken open
inside a glove box. They recorded instantaneous increases in N2 O
concentrations, which are likely to have been the result of release
of N2 O trapped in marginal and blocked pores as they were either
purged or disrupted.
Information on the relative proportions of arterial and marginal
pores requires interpretation of a physical tube model of porosity

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Journal compilation © 2013 British Society of Soil Science, European Journal of Soil Science, 64, 357–373

as a simple shape network (Schjønning et al., 2002). Other types
of model include fractals and random set models. Random set
models use a set of points creating spheres that are placed at
positions from a random distribution. Horgan & Ball (1994) made
a Boolean model of pore space where spheres overlap with the
spaces in between representing pores through which gas diffusion
was modelled. Horgan & Ball (2005) later used the model to
investigate the distribution of water in the pore spaces and to
quantify the effects on pore connectivity to the soil surface. They
explored soil water hysteresis and discovered a significant ‘ink-
bottle’ effect (blocked and marginal pores) which can store GHGs.
For soil near saturation, pore connectivity increased rapidly on
drying, which could explain the rapid increases in production
and emission of N2 O in very wet soils. Such an approach to
understanding the mechanisms of soil water hysteresis is important
for understanding the rapid changes in CO2 and N2 O production
and emission during cycles of drying and re-wetting (Ruser et al.,
2006; Beare et al., 2009; van der Weerden et al., 2012).
The Boolean model has so far not allowed simulation of
microbial activity. Monga et al. (2009) modelled pore space as
a ball network where each ball is attached to a pore. Organic
matter and decomposers were distributed within the balls. The
space segmentation produced by the network of balls was then
used to model spatial biological dynamics. Microbial soil organic
matter decomposition was simulated using this method. Long &
Or (2009) used a different approach to define biological activity
spatially. They focused on competitive growth of two species
inhabiting partially saturated rough surfaces. Nutrient diffusion
and microbial growth were modelled. They identified prolonged
co-existence of the competing species and population growth
dynamics under wet-dry cycles. Clearly these approaches could
model the co-existence of aerobic and anaerobic microsites or of
contrasting microbial types such as autotrophs and heterotrophs,
which would be of value for N2 O production and emission
and could include effects such as microbial adaptation. The
model could also include the change in distribution of the
microbial population and microbial enzyme activities with soil
depth (Venterea & Stanenas, 2008).
The importance of the presence of a few continuous pores near
the surface in soil close to saturation in regulating N2 O emission
was pointed out by van der Weerden et al. (2012). This is tackled
in the model of Laudone et al. (2011), where percolation channels
ramify a network of pores of a range of sizes chosen to replicate
water retention characteristics. The rate of emergence of N2 , N2 O
and CO2 is then calculated from simulated hot spots of emission
in the ‘soil’ (Laudone et al., 2011). The distance of the hot-spot
zones of biochemical activity from a continuous pore influenced
the exchange of chemical species by diffusion and the emission
of the gases from the soil. The approach shows promise for
tackling the influence of microbial biodiversity on gas exchange
and assessing the relative importance of compaction and saturation
for GHG emissions. Clearly, pore-scale modelling will have an
important role in helping to understand unusual responses of N2 O
Journal compilation © 2013 British Society of Soil Science, European Journal of Soil Science, 64, 357–373
Soil structure and greenhouse gas emissions 369
to driving variables by bringing understanding of the complex
interactions between biology and soil physics.
Soil management to obtain soil structure for minimum
risk of GHG emissions
Nitrous oxide losses from soil are likely to be accompanied by
losses of N2 , NO and possibly nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) (Granli
& Boeckman, 1994). These are hard to quantify but nevertheless
show that the role of soil physics in conserving nitrogen in soil is
becoming increasingly important as fertilizer prices increase and
as climate change provides soil conditions more conducive to N
loss. Soil management allows manipulation of soil physics and
structure to improve the efficiency of nutrient cycles.
Decreasing WFPS and its temporal variability is an important
means of reducing N2 O emissions. Drainage involves reducing the
water table height, which strongly influences soil WFPS and N2 O
emissions (Dobbie & Smith, 2006) in nitrogen-fertilized grassland.
Dobbie & Smith suggest that if the water table could be kept
to no less than 35 cm from the land surface by use of drainage
systems, N2 O emissions through the growing season would be
halved. The efficacy of drainage depends on rainfall and the
condition of the drainage system. MacLeod et al. (2010) estimated
that the annual UK abatement potential by 2022 of this approach
would be 5.84 kt N2 O. Simpler measures to ensure good topsoil
drainage, such as avoiding compaction and trampling damage near
the surface, are also important. In arable soils, the removal of
compact layers restricting downward flow of water and producing
perched water tables may be beneficial. Improvements in drainage
can also increase CH4 oxidation in winter (Saggar et al., 2008).
Optimizing the application timing of mineral N fertilizers to avoid
warm conditions when the soil is near field capacity may also have
the potential to reduce N2 O emissions.
Decreasing the rate of N fertilizer addition by adoption of low
N-input agriculture (such as organic farming) is likely to reduce
mineral N concentration and thus N2 O emissions. However,
biologically-fixed nitrogen is vulnerable to loss as emitted N2 O
when moist soil is tilled at temperatures above 7◦ C (Ball et al.,
2007). Low-input agriculture can also increase CH4 oxidation in
the soil and promote the growth of oligotrophic bacterial species,
which are slow-growing and may increase carbon sequestration
(Singh et al., 2010)
Removal of the stratification of soil properties that are important
driving variables influencing denitrification enzyme activity under
no-tillage, minimum tillage or long-term grass is important.
Stratification results in the presence of hot spots of activity close
to the surface and has a major influence on N2 O emission.
Tillage can disperse active sites of N2 O production and thereby
reduce gaseous emission, especially upwards (Ball et al., 2008).
A gradient of soil physical conditions can help direct N2 O
downwards for further reduction (Venterea & Stanenas, 2008).
Tillage is most likely to be needed in poorly-drained soils,
which are often poorly aerated, where no-tillage can result in
increased N2 O emissions (Rochette, 2008). This may offset any
© 2013 The Author
370 B. C. Ball
C stored in the no-tilled soil. No-till is also less likely to
be successful agronomically on such soils (Soane et al., 2012).
Separation of residues from applied mineral N by sub-surface
drilling or injection of the fertilizer may be beneficial in reducing
hot-spot activity (Venterea & Stanenas, 2008). This can be done
by drilling the fertilizer with the seed or applying the fertilizer as
a band to the side or below the seed, which reduces the chances of
seedling damage by salt or ammonia toxicity. Where all or most
of the residues are incorporated by tillage, the fertilizer can be
broadcast onto the soil surface.
Compaction and animal trampling damage near the surface
can smear the surface and block macropores, thereby holding
up N movement into the bulk soil. This can be relieved by
tillage after drying. Animal trampling effects can be mitigated by
improved stock management. A range of options are available
for winter management when stock is outside. These include
removing animals from wet pasture and putting them onto stand-
off pads or wood-chip corrals, restricted grazing and the use of
nitrification inhibitors (Saggar et al., 2008). Stand-off pads and
wood-chip corrals are purpose-built, drained surfaces used for
holding livestock during wet periods.
Reduction of compaction by vehicles should allow better
topsoil drainage and reduced N2 O emissions. Methods to reduce
compaction include the use of wide tyres, low ground-pressure
tyres, dual wheels, adjustment of tyre inflation pressures, reducing
vehicle weight and use of tracked vehicles (Håkansson, 2005).
Compaction can also be reduced by controlled traffic farming
where all machinery loads are confined within the least possible
area of permanent traffic lanes. Crops are grown in the traffic-
free areas where soil structure and hydrology improve and can
result in substantial reductions in GHG emissions under cropping
in Australia (Tullberg, 2010).
Soils with stable structure resist compaction damage and per-
mit good water drainage while retaining sufficient moisture for
good crop growth. Such conditions help GHG exchange. Struc-
tural stability is improved by addition of organic matter with a
significant labile fraction, which also contributes to the overall
capture of organic carbon in the soil. Organic carbon is stabilized
within aggregates and by physical binding with clay and silt par-
ticles and the formation of recalcitrant materials: root-associated
microbes also produce glomalin that helps to stabilize aggregates
(Srivastava et al., 2012).
Conclusions
Soil type exerts a strong effect on greenhouse gas emis-
sions, principally through the influences of soil structure and
soil wetness. Structure influences moisture content and distri-
bution, compaction status, pore size and continuity and the
distribution of organic residues. These, along with soil temper-
ature, regulate the microbial activity creating gases and their
emission.
Moist, well-aerated conditions favour CH4 oxidation and
CO2 exchange. With a range of mechanisms of production,
© 2013 The Author
Journal compilation © 2013 British Society of Soil Science, European Journal of Soil Science, 64, 357–373
the possibility of consumption and microbial adaptation, N2 O
emissions are not necessarily enhanced in wet, anaerobic soils.
In anaerobic soils, soil matric potential, VWC, relative gas
diffusivity and WFPS are indicators of aeration status, with
matric potential possibly being the best. Blockage of the air-
filled pores by water near the surface of compacted soils can
dramatically increase N2 O emission and decrease CO2 emission.
Nitrous oxide accumulates in pores blocked by water and escapes
from macropores, which vent only to the surface. Provision of
a gradient of increasing air-filled porosity with depth permits
downward gaseous diffusion of N2 O and increases the chances
of further reduction to N2 , though, of course, reduction of
N2 O to N2 in agricultural soils also represents a loss of N
that could have been used by the crop. Mitigation of N2 O
emissions can thus involve increasing porosity and reducing
moisture content through tillage and drainage. Assessment of
soil structure changes with depth (for example by VESS or by
gas movement and porosity assessment in cores) is important in
identifying layers active in the production and transmission of
gases.
The production and emission processes of GHGs are best
modelled at the pore scale. This needs to include the different
mechanisms of microbial production from hot spots of activ-
ity and how these change on wetting and drying and pos-
sible adaptation of microbial communities to site conditions.
Microbial adaptation may need to be considered when judg-
ing the risk of N2 O emission from observations of profile
morphology.
In future studies, experimental work on emission and mitigation
of GHGs would benefit from a focus on several gases simulta-
neously rather than on a single gas in isolation. Also short-term
studies of CO2 and CH4 exchange need better linkage to long-term
studies of carbon sequestration. A greater emphasis on studying
the interaction between physical and biological processes would
increase understanding of GHG emissions. These approaches are
particularly important where the overall potential for mitigation
of a novel type of soil management is assessed such as no-tillage
or controlled traffic farming.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful for the contributions of my colleagues and for-
mer colleagues in supporting this work. In particular, John
Parker, Colin Crawford, Robert Ritchie, Ian Crichton, Rachel
Guimarães, Albert Scott, Helen Clayton, Keith Smith, Jon
Arah, Iain McTaggart, Hiroko Akiyama, Christine Watson, Andy
Vinten, Mike O’Sullivan, Bryan Griffiths, Ute Skiba, Bob
Rees, Keith Cameron and Hong Di. Helen Gordon helped
prepare the figures and Brennan Soane made helpful com-
ments on the manuscript. This work was supported princi-
pally by several projects sponsored by the Scottish Office, the
Scottish Government, the British Council and the European
Union.

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