Course Code 6451

Assigment No 1

Q. 1 Give complete detail of life cycles of Wheat plant and Barbary plant.

Ans:- The stem, black, and cereal rusts are caused by the fungus Puccinia graminis and are a significant disease
affecting cereal crops. Crop species that are affected by the disease include bread wheat, durum wheat, barley and
triticale.[1] These diseases have affected cereal farming throughout history. The annual recurrence of stem rust of wheat
in North Indian plains was discovered by Prof. K.C. Mehta. [2] Since the 1950s, wheat strains bred to be resistant to stem
rust have become available.[3] Fungicides effective against stem rust are available as well.[4]

In 1999 a new virulent race of stem rust was identified that most current wheat strains show no resistance against. The
race was named TTKSK (e.g. isolate Ug99), named after the country where it was identified (Uganda) and the year of its
discovery (1999).[5] It spread to Kenya, then Ethiopia, Sudan and Yemen, and is becoming more virulent as it spreads.[5]
An epidemic of stem rust on wheat caused by race TTKSK is currently spreading across Africa, Asia and the Middle East
and is causing major concern due to the large numbers of people dependent on wheat for sustenance. Scientists are
working on breeding strains of wheat that are resistant to UG99. However, wheat is grown in a broad range of
environments. This means that breeding programs would have extensive work remaining to get resistance into
regionally adapted germplasms even after resistance is identified.[5]

An outbreak of another virulent race of stem rust, TTTTF, took place in Sicily in 2016, suggesting that the disease is
returning to Europe.[3] Comprehensive genomic analysis of Puccinia graminis combined with plant pathology and
climate data has pointed out the potential of the re-emergence of stem wheat rust in UK.[6][7]

Contents
1 Taxonomy
2 Pathology
3 Signs and symptoms
3.1 On wheat
3.2 On barberry
4 Life cycle
4.1 Life cycle on barberry
4.2 Life cycle without barberry
5 Spore dispersal
6 Wheat stem rust resistance genes
7 History of stem rust
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Taxonomy

Model of a spore of puccinia graminis, late 19th century, Botanical Museum Greifswald
There is considerable genetic diversity within the species P. graminis, and several special forms, forma specialis, which
vary in host range have been identified.
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Puccinia graminis f. sp. avenae, oat
Puccinia graminis f. sp. dactylis''Puccinia graminis'' f. sp. ''dactylis''
Puccinia graminis f. sp. hordei, barley
Puccinia graminis f. sp. lolii
Puccinia graminis f. sp. poae
Puccinia graminis f. sp. secalis, rye, barley
Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici, wheat, barley
P. graminis is a member of the phylum Basidiomycota within the kingdom Fungi. The characteristic rust color on stems
and leaves is typical of a general stem rust as well as any variation of this type of fungus. Different from most fungi, the
rust variations have five spore stages and alternate between two hosts. Wheat is the primary host, and barberry is the
alternate host.

There are multiple pathotypes (including QCC and MCC) affecting barley, within forma specialis tritici.[8]

Pathology
The stem rust fungus attacks the parts of the plant that are above ground. Spores that land on green wheat plants form
a pustule that invades the outer layers of the stalk.[5] Infected plants produce fewer tillers and set fewer seed, and in
cases of severe infection the plant may die. Infection can reduce what is an apparently healthy crop about three weeks
before harvest into a black tangle of broken stems and shriveled grains by harvest.[1]

Stem rust of cereals causes yield losses in several ways:[9]

Fungus absorbs nutrients that would otherwise be used for grain development.[9]
Pustules break through epidermis, which disrupt the plant's control of transpiration and can lead to desiccation and
infection by other fungi.[9]
Interference with plant vascular tissue leads to shriveled grains.[9]
The fungus weakens the stems, which can lead to lodging (falling over). In severe cases lodging can make mechanical
harvesting impossible.[9]
Signs and symptoms
On wheat

Wheat infected leaves with stem rust pathogen with a specific resistance gene
Stem rust on wheat is characterized by the presence of uredinia on the plant, which are brick-red, elongated, blister-like
pustules that are easily shaken off.[1] They most frequently occur on the leaf sheaths, but are also found on stems,
leaves, glumes and awns.[1] On leaves they develop mostly on the underside but may penetrate to the upperside.[1] On
leaf sheaths and glumes pustules rupture the epidermis, giving a ragged appearance.[1]

Towards the end of the growing season black telia are produced.[1] For this reason stem rust is also known as 'black
rust'.[1] The telia are firmly attached to the plant tissue.[1]

The site of infection is a visible symptom of the disease.

On barberry
Pycnia appear on barberry plants in the spring, usually in the upper leaf surfaces.[9] They are often in small clusters and
exude pycniospores in a sticky honeydew.[9] Five to ten days later, cup-shaped structures filled with orange-yellow,
powdery aeciospores break through the lower leaf surface.[9] The aecial cups are yellow and sometimes elongate to
extend up to 5 mm from the leaf surface.[9]
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Life cycle

Life cycle of Puccinia graminis

Like other Puccinia species, P. graminis is an obligate biotroph (it colonizes living plant cells) and has a complex life cycle
featuring alternation of generations. The fungus is heteroecious, requiring two hosts to complete its life cycle – the
cereal host and the alternate host.[9] There are many species in Berberis and Mahonia that are susceptible to stem rust,
but the common barberry is considered to be the most important alternate host.[1] P. graminis is macrocyclic[9]
(exhibits all five of the spore types that are known for rust fungi[10]).

Animated video of the life cycle of stem rust

Puccinia graminis can complete its life cycle either with or without barberry (the alternate host).[9]

Life cycle on barberry

Due to its cyclical nature, there is no true 'start point' for this process. Here, the production of urediniospores is
arbitrarily chosen as a start point.

Urediniospores are formed in structures called uredinia, which are produced by fungal mycelia on the cereal host 1–2
weeks after infection.[9] The urediniospores are dikaryotic (contain two un-fused, haploid nuclei in one cell) and are
formed on individual stalks within the uredinium.[9] They are spiny and brick-red.[9] Urediniospores are the only type of
spores in the rust fungus life cycle that are capable of infecting the host on which they are produced, and this is
therefore referred to as the 'repeating stage' of the life cycle.[9] It is the spread of urediniospores that allows infection
to spread from one cereal plant to another.[9] This phase can rapidly spread the infection over a wide area.

Towards the end of the cereal host's growing season, the mycelia produce structures called telia.[9] Telia produce a type
of spore called teliospores.[9] These black, thick-walled spores are dikaryotic.[9] They are the only form in which
Puccinia graminis is able to overwinter independently of a host.[9]

Each teliospore undergoes karyogamy (fusion of nuclei) and meiosis to form four haploid spores called basidiospores.[9]
This is an important source of genetic recombination in the life cycle.[9] Basidiospores are thin-walled and colourless.[9]
They cannot infect the cereal host, but can infect the alternative host (usually barberry).[9] They are usually carried to
the alternative host by wind.

Once basidiospores arrive on a leaf of the alternative host, they germinate to produce a haploid mycelium that directly
penetrates the epidermis and colonises the leaf.[9] Once inside the leaf the mycelium produces specialised infection
structures called pycnia.[9] The pycnia produce two types of haploid gametes, the pycniospores and the receptive
hyphae.[9] The pycniospores are produced in a sticky honeydew that attracts insects.[9] The insects carry pycniospores
from one leaf to another.[9] Splashing raindrops can also spread pycniospores.[9] A pycniospore can fertilise a receptive
hypha of the opposite mating type, leading to the production of a dikaryotic mycelium.[9] This is the sexual stage of the
life cycle and cross-fertilisation provides an important source of genetic recombination.[9]

This dikaryotic mycelium then forms structures called aecia, which produce a type of dikaryotic spores called
aeciospores.[9] These have a worty appearance and are formed in chains – unlike the urediniospores that are spiny and
are produced on individual stalks.[9] The chains of aeciospores are surrounded by a bell-like enclosure of fungal cells.
The aeciospores are able to germinate on the cereal host but not on the alternative host (they are produced on the
alternative host, which is usually barberry).[9] They are carried by wind to the cereal host where they germinate and the

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germ tubes penetrate into the plant.[9] The fungus grows inside the plant as a dikaryotic mycelium.[9] Within 1–2 weeks
the mycelium produces uredinia and the cycle is complete.

Q. 2 Give a comprehensive introduction of Bryophytes from evolutionary point of view.

They reproduce via spores.[5] Bryophytes are usually considered to be a paraphyletic group and not a monophyletic
group, although some studies have produced contrary results. Regardless of their status, the name is convenient and
remains in use as an informal collective term. The term "bryophyte" comes from Greek βρύον, bryon "tree-moss, oyster-
green" and φυτόν, phyton "plant".

Contents
1 Terminology
2 Features
3 Habitat
4 Life cycle
4.1 Sexuality
5 Classification and phylogeny
5.1 Paraphyletic view
5.2 Other views
6 Evolution
6.1 Similarities to algae and vascular plants
7 Comparative morphology
8 Uses
9 See also
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 External links
Terminology
The term "Bryophyta" was first suggested by Braun (1964).[citation needed] G.M. Smith placed this group between
Algae and Pteridophyta.[6]

Features
The defining features of bryophytes are:

Their life cycles are dominated by the gametophyte stage

Their sporophytes are unbranched
They do not have a true vascular tissue containing lignin (although some have specialized tissues for the transport of
water)[7]
Habitat
Bryophytes exist in a wide variety of habitats. They can be found growing in a range of temperatures (cold arctics and in
hot deserts), elevations (sea-level to alpine), and moisture (dry deserts to wet rainforests).[8]

Bryophytes can grow where vascularized plants cannot because they do not depend on roots for an uptake of nutrients
from soil. Bryophytes can survive on rocks and bare soil.[8]

Life cycle
See also: Alternation of generations
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The life cycle of a dioicous bryophyte. The gametophyte (haploid) structures are shown in green, the sporophyte
(diploid) in brown.
Like all land plants (embryophytes), bryophytes have life cycles with alternation of generations.[9] In each cycle, a
haploid gametophyte, each of whose cells contains a fixed number of unpaired chromosomes, alternates with a diploid
sporophyte, whose cell contain two sets of paired chromosomes. Gametophytes produce haploid sperm and eggs which
fuse to form diploid zygotes that grow into sporophytes. Sporophytes produce haploid spores by meiosis, that grow into
gametophytes.

Bryophytes are gametophyte dominant,[10] meaning that the more prominent, longer-lived plant is the haploid
gametophyte. The diploid sporophytes appear only occasionally and remain attached to and nutritionally dependent on
the gametophyte.[11] In bryophytes, the sporophytes are always unbranched and produce a single sporangium (spore
producing capsule), but each gametophyte can give rise to several sporophytes at once.

The sporophyte develops differently in the three groups. Both mosses and hornworts have a meristem zone where cell
division occur. In hornworts, the meristem starts at the base where the foot ends, and the division of cells is pushing the
sporophyte body upwards. In mosses, the meristem is located between the capsule and the top of the stalk (seta), and
produce cells downward, elongating the stalk and elevates the capsule. In liverworts the meristem is absent and the
elongation of the sporophyte is caused almost exclusively by cell expansion.[12]

Liverworts, mosses and hornworts spend most of their lives as gametophytes. Gametangia (gamete-producing organs),
archegonia and antheridia, are produced on the gametophytes, sometimes at the tips of shoots, in the axils of leaves or
hidden under thalli. Some bryophytes, such as the liverwort Marchantia, create elaborate structures to bear the
gametangia that are called gametangiophores. Sperm are flagellated and must swim from the antheridia that produce
them to archegonia which may be on a different plant. Arthropods can assist in transfer of sperm.[13]

Fertilized eggs become zygotes, which develop into sporophyte embryos inside the archegonia. Mature sporophytes
remain attached to the gametophyte. They consist of a stalk called a seta and a single sporangium or capsule. Inside the
sporangium, haploid spores are produced by meiosis. These are dispersed, most commonly by wind, and if they land in a
suitable environment can develop into a new gametophyte. Thus bryophytes disperse by a combination of swimming
sperm and spores, in a manner similar to lycophytes, ferns and other cryptogams.

Further information: Liverwort § Life cycle, Moss § Life cycle, and Hornwort § Life cycle
Sexuality
The arrangement of antheridia and archegonia on an individual bryophyte plant is usually constant within a species,
although in some species it may depend on environmental conditions. The main division is between species in which the
antheridia and archegonia occur on the same plant and those in which they occur on different plants. The term
monoicous may be used where antheridia and archegonia occur on the same gametophyte and the term dioicous where
they occur on different gametophytes.[14]

In seed plants, "monoecious" is used where flowers with anthers (microsporangia) and flowers with ovules
(megasporangia) occur on the same sporophyte and "dioecious" where they occur on different sporophytes. These
terms occasionally may be used instead of "monoicous" and "dioicous" to describe bryophyte gametophytes.
"Monoecious" and "monoicous" are both derived from the Greek for "one house", "dioecious" and "dioicous" from the
Greek for two houses. The use of the "oicy" terminology refers to the gametophyte sexuality of bryophytes as distinct
from the sporophyte sexuality of seed plants.[14]

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Monoicous plants are necessarily hermaphroditic, meaning that the same plant has both sexes.[14] The exact
arrangement of the antheridia and archegonia in monoicous plants varies. They may be borne on different shoots
(autoicous or autoecious), on the same shoot but not together in a common structure (paroicous or paroecious), or
together in a common "inflorescence" (synoicous or synoecious).[14][15] Dioicous plants are unisexual, meaning that
the same plant has only one sex.[14] All four patterns (autoicous, paroicous, synoicous and dioicous) occur in species of
the moss genus

Q. 3 Explain morphology of Pteridophytes.

Ans:- A pteridophyte is a vascular plant (with xylem and phloem) that disperses spores. Because pteridophytes
produce neither flowers nor seeds, they are sometimes referred to as "cryptogams", meaning that their means of
reproduction is hidden. Ferns, horsetails (often treated as ferns), and lycophytes (clubmosses, spikemosses, and
quillworts) are all pteridophytes. However, they do not form a monophyletic group because ferns (and horsetails) are
more closely related to seed plants than to lycophytes. "Pteridophyta" is thus no longer a widely accepted taxon, but the
term pteridophyte remains in common parlance, as do pteridology and pteridologist as a science and its practitioner,
respectively. Ferns and lycophytes share a life cycle and are often collectively treated or studied, for example by the
International Association of Pteridologists and the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group.

Contents
1 Description
2 Taxonomy
2.1 Phylogeny
2.2 Subdivision
3 Ecology
4 See also
5 References
6 Bibliography
7 External links
Description
Pteridophytes (ferns and lycophytes) are free-sporing vascular plants that have a life cycle with alternating, free-living
gametophyte and sporophyte phases that are independent at maturity. The body of the sporophyte is well
differentiated into roots, stem and leaves. The root system is always adventitious. The stem is either underground or
aerial. The leaves may be microphylls or megaphylls. Their other common characteristics include vascular plant
apomorphies (e.g., vascular tissue) and land plant plesiomorphies (e.g., spore dispersal and the absence of seeds).[1] [2]

Taxonomy
Phylogeny
Of the pteridophytes, ferns account for nearly 90% of the extant diversity.[2] Smith et al. (2006), the first higher-level
pteridophyte classification published in the molecular phylogenetic era, considered the ferns as monilophytes, as
follows:[3]

Division Tracheophyta (tracheophytes) - vascular plants

Subdivision Lycopodiophyta (lycophytes) - less than 1% of extant vascular plants
Sub division Euphyllophytina (euphyllophytes)
Infradivision Moniliformopses (monilophytes)
Infradivision Spermatophyta - seed plants, ~260,000 species
where the monilophytes comprise about 9,000 species, including horsetails (Equisetaceae), whisk ferns (Psilotaceae),
and all eusporangiate and all leptosporangiate ferns. Historically both lycophytes and monilophytes were grouped
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together as pteridophytes (ferns and fern allies) on the basis of being spore-bearing ("seed-free"). In Smith's molecular
phylogenetic study the ferns are characterised by lateral root origin in the endodermis, usually mesarch protoxylem in
shoots, a pseudoendospore, plasmodial tapetum, and sperm cells with 30-1000 flagella.[3] The term "moniliform" as in
Moniliformopses and monilophytes means "bead-shaped" and was introduced by Kenrick and Crane (1997)[4] as a
scientific replacement for "fern" (including Equisetaceae) and became established by Pryer et al. (2004).[5] Christenhusz
and Chase (2014) in their review of classification schemes provide a critique of this usage, which they discouraged as
irrational. In fact the alternative name Filicopsida was already in use.[6] By comparison "lycopod" or lycophyte (club
moss) means wolf-plant. The term "fern ally" included under Pteridophyta generally refers to vascular spore-bearing
plants that are not ferns, including lycopods, horsetails, whisk ferns and water ferns (Marsileaceae, Salviniaceae and
Ceratopteris), and even a much wider range of taxa.[clarification needed] This is not a natural grouping but rather a
convenient term for non-fern, and is also discouraged, as is eusporangiate for non-leptosporangiate ferns.[7]

However both Infradivision and Moniliformopses are also invalid names under the International Code of Botanical
Nomenclature. Ferns, despite forming a monophyletic clade, are formally only considered as four classes (Psilotopsida;
Equisetopsida; Marattiopsida; Polypodiopsida), 11 orders and 37 families, without assigning a higher taxonomic rank.[3]

Furthermore, within the Polypodiopsida, the largest grouping, a number of informal clades were recognised, including
leptosporangiates, core leptosporangiates, polypods (Polypodiales), and eupolypods (including Eupolypods I and
Eupolypods II).[3]

In 2014 Christenhusz and Chase, summarising the known knowledge at that time, treated this group as two separate
unrelated taxa in a consensus classification;[7]

Lycopodiophyta (lycopods) 1 subclass, 3 orders, each with one family, 5 genera, approx. 1,300 species
Polypodiophyta (ferns) 4 sublasses, 11 orders, 21 families, approx. 212 genera, approx. 10,535 species
Subclass Equisetidae Warm.
Subclass Ophioglossidae Klinge
Subclass Marattiidae Klinge
Subclass Polypodiidae Cronquist, Takht. & Zimmerm.
These subclasses correspond to Smith's four classes, with Ophioglossidae corresponding to Psilotopsida.

The two major groups previously included in Pteridophyta are phylogenetically related as follows:[7][8][9]

Tracheophyta – vascular plants

 
Lycopodiophyta

 
Euphyllophyta
 
Polypodiophyta – ferns

 
Spermatophyta – seed plants
 
Gymnospermae

 
7
 
Angiospermae – flowering plants

 
 
 
 
Pteridophyta
Subdivision
Pteridophytes consist of two separate but related classes, whose nomenclature has varied.[3][10] The system put
forward by the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group in 2016, PPG I, is:[2]

Class Lycopodiopsida Bartl. – lycophytes: clubmosses, quillworts and spikemosses; 3 extant orders
Order Lycopodiales DC. ex Bercht. & J.Presl – clubmosses; 1 extant family
Order Isoetales Prantl – quillworts; 1 extant family
Order Selaginellales Prantl – spikemosses; 1 extant family
Class Polypodiopsida Cronquist, Takht. & W.Zimm. – horsetails and ferns; 11 extant orders
Subclass Equisetidae Warm. – horsetails; 1 extant order, family and genus (Equisetum)
Order Equisetales DC. ex Bercht. & J.Presl – 1 extant family
Subclass Ophioglossidae Klinge – 2 extant orders
Order Psilotales Prant – whisk ferns; 1 extant family
Order Ophioglossales Link – grape ferns; 1 extant family
Subclass Marattiidae Klinge – marattioid ferns; 1 extant order
Order Marattiales Link – 1 extant family
Subclass Polypodiidae Cronquist, Takht. & W.Zimm. – leptosporangiate ferns; 7 extant orders
Order Osmundales Link – 1 extant family
Order Hymenophyllales A.B.Frank – 1 extant family
Order Gleicheniales Schimp – 3 extant families
Order Schizaeales Schimp. – 3 extant families
Order Salviniales Link – 2 extant families
Order Cyatheales A.B.Frank – 8 extant families
Order Polypodiales Link – 26 extant families
In addition to these living groups, several groups of pteridophytes are now extinct and known only from fossils. These
groups include the Rhyniopsida, Zosterophyllopsida, Trimerophytopsida, the Lepidodendrales and the
Progymnospermopsida.

Modern studies of the land plants agree that all pteridophytes share a common ancestor with seed plants. Therefore,
pteridophytes do not form a clade but constitute a paraphyletic group.

Ecology

Pteridophyte life cycle

Just as with bryophytes and spermatophytes (seed plants), the life cycle of pteridophytes involves alternation of
generations. This means that a diploid generation (the sporophyte, which produces spores) is followed by a haploid
generation (the gametophyte or prothallus, which produces gametes). Pteridophytes differ from bryophytes in that the
sporophyte is branched and generally much larger and more conspicuous, and from seed plants in that both generations
are independent and free-living. The sexuality of pteridophyte gametophytes can be classified as follows:

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Dioicous: each individual gametophyte is either male (producing antheridia and hence sperm) or female (producing
archegonia and hence egg cells).
Monoicous: each individual gametophyte produces both antheridia and archegonia and can function both as a male and
as a female.
Protandrous: the antheridia mature before the archegonia (male first, then female).
Protogynous: the archegonia mature before the antheridia (female first, then male).
These terms are not the same as monoecious and dioecious, which refer to whether a seed plant's sporophyte bears
both male and female gametophytes, i. e., produces both pollen and seeds, or just one of the sexes.

Q. 4 Write general characteristics of gymnosperms.

Ans:- One crucial step in the evolutionary history of all plants was the development of seeds. Seeds provide a viable
means for dispersal of offspring without the need for water. They're a far more efficient way of dispersal and allow
plants to exist away from direct sources of water.

Gymnosperms were the first plants to have seeds. They are often referred to as having naked seeds because they do not
have flowers, and their seeds develop on the surface of the reproductive structures of the plants rather than being
contained in a specialized ovary. These seeds are often found on the surfaces of cones and short stalks.

Characteristics of Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms are a group of plants with the following unique characteristics:

They do not have an outer covering or shell around their seeds

They do not produce flowers
They do not produce fruits
They are pollinated by the wind
Types of Gymnosperms
All gymnosperms are found in four major divisions of plants. The divisions are Ginkgophyta, Cycadophyta, Gnetophyta,
and Coniferophyta.

Q. 5 Write comprehensive details on the following:

a) Briefly describe features of Asteraceae family

b) Brief inflorescence of Asteraceae family
c) What is economic importance of family Asteraceae family?
d) Distribution and habit of Family Liliaceae.

Ans:-
dandelionOverview of dandelions.Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, MainzSee all videos for this article
Asteraceae is important primarily for its many garden ornamentals, such as ageratums,
asters, chrysanthemums, cosmos, dahlias, marigolds (Tagetes), and zinnias. Other well-known garden plants and
wildflowers include Boltonia, Brachycome, burdock (Arctium), butterbur (Petasites), Calendula, cat’s ear (Hypochoeris),
cudweed (Filago and Gnaphalium), Gerbera, hawksbeard (Crepis), Inula, Matricaria, and Piqueria. Some genera include
noxious weeds, such as dandelion (Taraxacum), ragweed (Ambrosia), and thistle (Carduus, Cirsium, and others). Several
other members of Asteraceae have economic importance as food crops. Artichokes
(Cynara), lettuce (Lactuca), endive (Cichorium), and salsify (Tragopogon) are commonly eaten as vegetables, and the
9
edible seeds of safflower (Carthamus), and sunflower (Helianthus) are used in the production of cooking
oils. Wormwood (Artemisia) is the source of the poisonous oil used to give the liqueur absinthe its distinctive character.

Members of the family have flower heads composed of many small flowers, called florets, that are surrounded by bracts
(leaflike structures). Bell-shaped disk florets form the centre of each head. Strap-shaped ray florets extend out like
petals from the centre and are sometimes reflexed (bent back). Some species have flowers with only disk or only ray
florets. The sepals have been reduced to a ring of hairs, scales, or bristles that is called the pappus on the mature fruit.
The one-seeded fruit (an achene) has a hard outer covering.

The leaves of Asteraceae are simple or occasionally compound, and their arrangement along the stem may be opposite,
alternate, or, less commonly, whorled; not infrequently they are opposite toward the base of the stem and alternate
above.
The aster family (Asteraceae) is a diverse group of flowering plants distributed nearly worldwide. Noted for their
attractive composite flowers, many are grown as garden ornamentals, and a number are cultivated as food crops or
herbs. The following is a list of some of the major plants in the family, ordered alphabetically by common name.
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