Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 1103–1114

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Journal of Archaeological Science

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

Integrated geological, petrologic and geochemical approach to establish source

material and technology of Late Cypriot Bronze Age Plain White ware ceramics
Cornelius Tschegg a, *, Theodoros Ntaflos a, Irmgard Hein b
a
Department of Lithospheric Research, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
b
Institute of Egyptology, University of Vienna, Frankgasse 1, 1090 Vienna, Austria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Late Cypriot Bronze Age Plain White Wheelmade ware samples from several Cypriot excavation sites and
Received 24 July 2008 the northern Canaanite coast were studied to ascertain their production centres and details of their
Received in revised form manufacturing processes and post-depositional alteration. The investigation of the ceramics, using
20 November 2008
combined geoscientific analytical techniques (XRF, ICP-MS, XRD and EPMA) allowed four groups of
Accepted 7 December 2008
pottery to be distinguished based on their common raw-material sources and/or technological analogies.
Sediments that were sampled in East Cyprus (eastern Mesaoria Plain) for comparative purposes indicated
Keywords:
that most of the investigated ceramics were produced from raw materials available around the ancient
Ceramics
Cyprus settlement of Enkomi. Appraising technological variations and discriminative raw-material characteris-
Sediments tics, several pottery producing workshops in ancient Enkomi (Eastern Cypriot coast) have been identified
Mesaoria Plain that merchandised their commodities on Cyprus and, in all probability, also overseas.
Provenance study Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Technology
Raw material

1. Introduction different areas of Cyprus is often problematic (Gomez et al., 2002

1.1. Archaeological background
During the Late phase of the Middle Cypriot Bronze Age (MC III)
and the Late Cypriot Bronze Age (LC, 1750–1050 B.C., acc. to Steel
(2002)), Cyprus became an important focus for trade and exchange
of cultural goods. The prime position of the island in the eastern
Mediterranean, as well as its richness in copper and the increase in
demand for this metal, is considered to be the pivotal reasons for
the intensive integration of Cyprus into the Mediterranean trading
systems. Together with the distribution of Cu-ores, also cultural
goods and pottery started being exchanged within and beyond
Cyprus. Several studies have demonstrated that pottery was
exported from Cyprus to ancient eastern and southern Mediterra-
nean markets (e.g. Knapp and Cherry, 1994 and ref. therein;
Maguire, 1995; Gomez et al., 2002 and ref. therein; Tschegg et al.,
2008). Trade networks within Cyprus are less well understood and
it is clear that whilst pottery can often be assigned to a certain
production region by style, the provenancing of ceramics to the
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cornelius.tschegg@univie.ac.at (C. Tschegg).
and ref. therein).
In this study, we present a direct comparison of Late Cypriot
Bronze Age ceramics from stratified contexts at Enkomi (to a large
extent Plain White Wheelmade (PWW) ware samples) with
material from other Cypriot localities and the Canaanite coast and
their source material. Enkomi is a Late Cypriot Bronze Age settle-
ment that lies 1 km east of the modern village of Enkomi, ca. 3 km
from the eastern Cypriot coast (see Fig. 1). It is the most extensively
excavated LC site on Cyprus and is considered to be the first
established ‘‘state-like’’ settlement on the island (Crewe, 2004,
2007a). Beside a well-developed copper smelting site, Enkomi also
occupied the main Cypriot harbour for trade to the eastern Medi-
terranean and, therefore, stands out as a centre for exports and
imports of numerous products (Knapp and Cherry, 1994).
The Cypriot PWW ware on which the study focused is one of the
subgroups of the large Plain White ware family, a ware group that
first appeared as handmade forms in small numbers in MC III (1750–
1600 B.C.) and continued throughout the LC phases (1600–1050
B.C.), expanding to include wheelmade versions (Åström, 1972;
Crewe, 2007b). A large majority are closed vessels, although all of
them are still categorizable as table-, household- and storage-
pottery. The ware represents a radical transformation and techno-
logical innovation in Cypriot ceramic style and manufacturing

0305-4403/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.12.004
1104 C. Tschegg et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 1103–1114
Fig. 1. Map of the circum-Troodos sedimentary successions (modified by author; provided by the Geological Survey Department, Nicosia, Cyprus) and detail from the geological
map of Cyprus (modified by author; GSD, 1995). Squares indicate sediment sample positions from this study; triangles, sample points from Vaughan (1987); circles indicate
excavation sites of the studied sherds. The cross locates the Enkomi excavation site. (GP – Galinoporni, HF – Halefga, HST – Hala Sultan Tekke, KD – Kalopsidha; Q – Pleistocene
Athalassa Fm., Q1 – Pleistocene Fanglomerate Fm., H – Holocene alluviums and colluviums.)
techniques, appearing concurrently with the first evidence for
extensive trade contacts of Cyprus to other Mediterranean regions.
Although the PW ware was not initially thought to be a regular
export ware, it was also distributed outside Cyprus, as was demon-
strated by sherds found in the Egyptian Nile Delta in late Second
Intermediate Period levels (Tell el-Dabca – Hein and Jánosi, 2004),
and for instance in a later stage equivalent to LC II at the northern
Canaanite coastal region (Tell Abu Hawam – Artzy, 2006). Central-
ized pottery productions are assumed to have increased during the
Protohistoric Bronze Age on Cyprus, although there is evidence that
local, sometimes specialized manufacturing took place at the same
time (Knapp and Cherry, 1994). Typological studies indicate a high
likelihood both of several manufacturing centres and of regional
ceramic exchange throughout the island. Provenancing pottery via
identification of the original source material facilitates pinpointing
definite production centres/manufacturing workshops, as well as
specific trading contacts on the island.
1.2. Geological setting
Enkomi is located in the eastern part of the Mesaoria Plain, near
Famagusta Bay (see Fig. 1). This plain extends from Morphou Bay in
the west to Famagusta Bay in eastern Cyprus and is bounded to the
north by the Kyrenia Range, comprising Carboniferous to Creta-
ceous limestones overlain by Late Palaeogene to Neogene flysch
deposits, passing up to recent alluvial/colluvial sediments. In the
south, the basin adjoins Upper Cretaceous rocks of the Troodos
ophiolite sequence and its Upper Cretaceous to recent sedimentary
successions. Morphologically, the Mesaoria Plain lies at a maximum
height of 300 m.a.s.l (metres above sea level) and is bounded by the
Kyrenia range to the north, with elevations of up to 910, and the
Troodos massif to the south, with heights of up to 1940 m.a.s.l.
(Neal, 2002).
Geologically, the eastern Mesaoria Basin comprises sediments of
the Pliocene Nicosia Formation and the Pleistocene Athalassa
Formation, stratigraphically overlain by Pliocene–Pleistocene fan-
glomerates and terrace deposits, as well as Holocene alluvial
sediments (McCallum and Robertson, 1995; Robertson et al., 1995).
The Nicosia Formation consists of limestones, marls, sandstones,
conglomerates, gravels and silts (Calon et al., 2005; GSD, 1995). This
succession of marine sedimentation is conformably followed by
shallow marine calcarenites, sandstones, marls and conglomerates
of the upper Pliocene to Pleistocene Athalassa Formation (GSD,
1995; Robertson and Woodcock, 1986). The overlying extensive
deposition of fluvial and alluvial material during the Quaternary
was related to erosion resulting from the uplift of the Troodos
massif. These consist of an unconformably deposited undifferenti-
ated lower marine sequence and an upper terrigenous sequence of
conglomerates, breccias, gravels, sands, silts and lacustrine muds,
summarized as the Pleistocene fanglomerates (Calon et al., 2005;
GSD, 1995). The Holocene alluvium, represented by spacious
floodplains, alluvial channels and fan deposits, comprises sands,
silts, clays and gravels (GSD, 1995; Newell et al., 2004).
2. Ceramic collection and raw-material sampling
Sample identification numbers, specific ware types and exca-
vation sites of all analyzed ceramic specimens and raw materials
are summarized in Table 1.
The majority (22 sherds) of the Plain White Wheelmade (PWW)
ware specimen investigated here were taken from material held in
the Larnaca Museum stores, from excavations at Enkomi in the late
1940–1950 (Dikaios, 1969–1971) and were recently analyzed by
Crewe (2004, 2007a). The Cypriot PWW ware is an appropriate
ware group for provenance investigations as, firstly, it was
produced in large quantities and, secondly, as a utilitarian ware it is
quite simply made, without intensive raw-material conditioning or
complex surface treatments. Consequently, it reflects the used raw
material in a relatively pristine state, which considerably eases the
quest for its provenance.
Additional PWW samples, excavated in Cyprus and the northern
Canaanite coast, were added to the study for comparison (see
Table 1). Samples from sherd material currently held in the Cyprus
Museum Nicosia from pre-1974 were from rescued tombs: two
 C. Tschegg et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 1103–1114
Table 1
List of ceramic samples and sediments with their associated place of finding.
Plain White Wheelmade ware
Enkomi 2191/2, 2191/5, 2191/13, 2191/14, 2191/15, 2248/1, 2248/4,
2248/5, 2248/6, 2248/8, 2248/9, 4527/17, 2300a, 2300b, 2300/4,
2300/7, 2300/12, 2300/13
Galinoporni Sherd 1, Sherd 6 Comparative material
Halefga T2
Hala Sultan Tekke F1, F1/1, F6002/1, F6008
Kalopsidha LCII
Tell Abu Hawam 5014/6, 5046/36, 5064/69, 5103/7
Red on Black ware
Enkomi 2191/6, 2192/10, 2267/1, 2267/2
Sediments (see also Fig. 1)
Eastern Mesaoria Plain ENK1, ENK2, ENK5, GYP1, GYP2, GYP3, HST
sherds from Galinoporni Tomb 1 (1956) and one from Halefga
Forest Station tomb. F1 and F1/1 represent sherds from a well at
Hala Sultan Tekke (Cyprus, early 14th century B.C.), F6002/1 and
F6008 from an LC IIIA1 layer at Hala Sultan Tekke (Åström and
Åström, 1972; Öbrink, 1979, 1983). The sample LCII was found in
a disturbed LC layer (assumed to be LC II) at Kalopsidha (Cyprus).
Four comparative PWW specimens were found during a salvage
excavation in 2001 in Tell Abu Hawam, a site in the vicinity of
modern Haifa (Israel), where a large percentage of the ceramic
material has been assumed to be imported from Cyprus. The
pottery samples can mainly be assigned from the 14th to the first
half of the 13th century B.C. (Artzy, 2006). Finally, four Red on Black
(RoB) samples, also from Enkomi (Dikaios’ excavations) were
additionally analyzed to determine the differences and analogies of
unequal ware groups from the same excavation site and the same
assumed provenance.
Representative amounts of fine-grained raw materials suitable
for pottery production were collected from typical outcrops of the
geological formations in the vicinity of the Enkomi excavation site,
to compare their chemical and mineralogical composition with
ceramic samples that were supposedly locally produced at Enkomi.
Three samples were collected from Pleistocene fanglomerate
terraces; one (ENK1) from close to the Enkomi excavation site, two
(GYP1, GYP2) from roadside outcrops between Lapathos and
Sygkrasi (see Fig. 1). These loose silty clays (USDA classification; Soil
Survey Division Staff, 1993) consist mainly of siliceous and calcar-
eous constituents; the clay mineral fraction is composed of smec-
tite-, illite- and chlorite-group minerals at more or less the same
proportions, and some kaolinite (see Fig. 5b–d). All three Pleisto-
cene samples contained a few coarse (0.5–3 mm) calcareous shell
fragments. Sample ENK2 was taken from a horizon near the exca-
vation, whereas GYP3 samples a floodplain to the north; both
samples are Holocene silty loams (USDA classification; Soil Survey
Division Staff, 1993) from different alluvial environments. ENK5
reflects the silty fraction of a fluvially deposited Holocene sequence
to the west of the excavation. Apart from the considerable amounts
of dolomite, the Holocene samples have a similar bulk mineralogy
to the Pleistocene samples, although their clay mineral fraction is
smaller and consists mainly of smectite group minerals (see Fig. 5a).
An additional sample was taken near Larnaca, at Hala Sultan Tekke.
This is similar to the other Holocene samples, in that it is also
dolomite bearing, but additionally shows substantial amounts of
halite. Comparative ICP-AES analyzed marl clays from the Pliocene
Nicosia Formation (Vaughan, 1987) in the vicinity of Famagusta and
in the southern Mesaoria Plain (see Fig. 1), were also included in the
geochemical interpretation. These mainly contain smectite and
chlorite group minerals (Vaughan, 1987).
1105
3. Analytical techniques
Bulk major element compositions of pottery specimens and
collected raw materials were analyzed with a Philips PW 2400
sequential wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer
(XRF), trace- and rare-earth element compositions were deter-
mined using a Perkin Elmer Elan 6100 DRC inductively coupled
mass spectrometer (ICP-MS; both from the Department of Litho-
spheric Research, University of Vienna). Sample preparation and
measuring techniques followed the procedure described in Tschegg
et al. (2008). Loss on ignition (LOI) was determined by firing the
specimens for 3 h at 950  C.
For qualitative bulk mineralogical analyses, oriented samples were
prepared and measured on a Philips PW 1820 X-ray diffraction spec-
trometer (XRD; Department of Geodynamics and Sedimentology,
University of Vienna), using 45 kV and 35 mA and a scanning range of
2–70 2q. Clay mineralogy was determined on a <2 mm fraction
separate, obtained by sedimentation. Prior to analysis, the sediments
were disaggregated and homogenized with a 400 W ultrasonic probe;
organic matter was removed by treatment with diluted H2O2.
Ethylene-glycol saturated, oriented XRD mounts of the <2 mm fractions
were additionally prepared to define expandable clay mineral groups.
Mineral assemblages and textural features of the ceramics were
studied on polished thin-sections with an optical microscope.
Microtextural relationships and mineral chemistries were analyzed
on carbon-coated thin-sections with a Cameca SX 100 electron-
microprobe (EPMA) equipped with four wavelength-dispersive
(WDS) and one energy-dispersive (EDS) spectrometers (Depart-
ment of Lithospheric Research, University of Vienna) at operating
conditions of 15 kV and 20 nA. All measurements were made
against natural standards and standard correction procedures were
applied. For micro-chemical and micro-morphological character-
ization of the raw material, samples and for the comparison of
ceramic-included minerals/microfossils with minerals/microfossils
in the raw materials, a >63 mm grain-size separate was embedded
in resin and analyzed with the EPMA. On some ceramic specimens
with a slip, line-scans with the defocused beam technique (5 mm
beam diameter) were made, to compare ceramic body and slip
geochemical compositions. The distribution of elements in slip and
body was also determined with a high-resolution qualitative WDS
elemental mapping procedure (20 kV, 20 nA). Image analyses with
Scion Image for Windows (ÓScion Corporation) were performed to
determine the porosity. SPSS 15.0 for Windows (ÓSPSS Inc.) was
used to perform statistical data reduction treatments.
4. Results
4.1. Bulk geochemistry – major elements
Bulk geochemical compositions of ceramics and sediments are
reported in Table 2 and illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3. After statistical
data reduction treatments, four groups of ceramics were discrimi-
nated, on the basis of their bulk major and trace element chemistry.
Group A comprises the largest number of PWW ware samples
excavated in Enkomi, but also includes sherds from Galinoporni,
Halefga, Hala Sultan Tekke, Kalopsidha and Tell Abu Hawam. The
SiO2 content ranges from 47.5 to 55.3 wt.%, Al2O3 from 12.1 to
14.4 wt.%, CaO varies from 11.4 to 23.6 wt.% and K2O from 1.7 to
3.3 wt.%. Group B includes three PWW and four RoB sherds from
Enkomi and one PWW sample from Hala Sultan Tekke. Compared
to Group A, the specimens of this group have lesser internal vari-
ations in chemical composition, with higher concentrations of SiO2
(56.3–58.3 wt.%), Al2O3 (15.6–16.5 wt.%) and K2O (3.2–3.5 wt.%)
and lower amounts of CaO (7.5–10.5 wt.%). Group C comprises two
PWW ware samples from Tell Abu Hawam with SiO2, Al2O3, CaO
Table 2

1106
Bulk major and trace element abundances of Cypriot PWW samples as well as related ceramics and raw materials.

Group A

2191-2 2191-5 2191-13 2191-14 2191-15 2248-1 2248-4 2248-5 2248-6 2248-8 2248-9 4527/17 2300b 2300/4 2300/12 Sherd1 Sherd6 T2 F6002/1 F6008 LCII 5103/7
Major elements [XRF analyses in wt.%]
SiO2 51.4 51.2 51.3 51.0 51.4 52.2 54.8 48.5 51.5 50.7 52.0 48.3 51.0 50.8 49.8 55.2 55.3 50.6 52.0 51.3 47.5 51.4
TiO2 0.77 0.73 0.82 0.74 0.74 0.79 0.73 0.76 0.74 0.81 0.72 0.70 0.75 0.77 0.69 0.75 0.82 0.78 0.71 0.72 0.70 0.78
Al2O3 14.0 13.0 12.9 13.8 13.2 14.4 13.3 13.9 14.01 14.2 13.5 13.1 13.0 13.4 12.1 14.2 13.9 13.2 12.9 12.6 12.5 14.0
FeOa 7.08 6.76 7.26 7.10 6.81 7.25 6.77 7.59 7.09 7.99 6.94 6.95 7.32 7.06 6.36 6.99 7.18 6.98 7.07 6.42 6.28 6.27
MnO 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.17 0.16 0.18 0.15 0.15 0.17 0.15 0.16 0.13 0.15 0.13 0.11 0.13 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.13
MgO 6.32 7.73 4.54 6.74 7.01 6.41 5.13 5.62 6.10 5.51 6.68 5.49 6.21 5.02 5.97 5.61 5.54 4.22 4.47 4.98 4.78 5.05
CaO 16.0 15.9 17.7 16.1 15.6 15.1 14.6 19.1 15.8 16.2 14.7 20.3 16.7 17.6 19.2 11.4 12.7 19.7 17.9 19.4 23.6 18.1
Na2O 1.47 1.68 2.69 1.55 1.82 1.54 1.50 1.44 1.35 1.59 1.48 1.68 1.88 1.89 1.89 1.32 1.87 1.89 1.99 1.61 1.70 1.63
K2O 2.34 2.13 1.73 2.41 2.22 2.04 2.89 2.24 2.95 2.29 2.72 2.05 2.11 2.26 2.32 3.27 2.13 1.85 1.66 1.99 1.77 2.12
P2O5 0.23 0.21 0.24 0.30 0.24 0.23 0.21 0.28 0.23 0.20 0.31 0.34 0.27 0.26 0.54 0.17 0.12 0.30 0.16 0.16 0.20 0.29

Total 99.8 99.6 99.3 99.9 99.2 100.1 100.1 99.6 100.1 99.7 99.2 99.0 99.5 99.1 98.9 99.1 99.7 99.6 98.9 99.4 99.1 99.7
LOI 7.9 8.8 4.6 4.8 10.3 7.7 12.5 7.5 11.4 5.2 12.2 9.6 8.0 4.4 9.3 9.3 14.4 11.7 16.3 5.7 12.7 7.9

C. Tschegg et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 1103–1114

Trace elements [ICP-MS analyses in ppm]
Li 44.0 41.0 27.3 39.9 30.3 39.6 27.7 34.7 38.0 38.7 35.9 28.0 22.5 30.7 27.6 33.5 47.3 28.2 33.5 25.9 28.5 28.2
Be 1.55 1.42 0.82 1.57 1.33 1.62 1.18 1.11 1.69 1.27 1.42 0.99 0.86 1.07 0.86 1.12 1.92 0.94 1.03 0.84 1.01 0.99
Sc 12.6 13.4 13.4 15.5 14.0 14.9 11.4 15.5 12.8 16.4 13.4 15.3 12.3 12.7 9.94 13.2 12.4 12.9 22.1 18.8 10.3 17.7
V 129 128 167 143 128 161 130 188 150 185 152 169 153 177 125 168 169 151 225 206 145 169
Cr 259 357 358 317 274 357 325 305 284 415 385 417 324 382 242 796 568 323 973 857 333 334
Co 29.1 30.4 25.3 34.7 29.6 37.2 28.2 32.6 33.9 34.8 34.0 28.8 26.5 28.4 21.4 30.1 31.6 26.5 31.3 29.0 20.8 25.4
Cu 74.4 76.7 101 112 50.2 73.9 73.4 86.8 86.3 83.2 83.3 529 770 616 623 64.5 89.0 55.9 78.2 65.8 59.3 131
Zn 90.5 96.4 88.1 92.4 84.0 108 95.7 93.5 85.3 97.2 153 66.4 77.0 116 87.5 72.7 95.8 75.9 81.8 68.6 63.6 63.7
As 6.17 6.89 8.14 6.69 1.30 4.91 8.36 10.8 7.04 11.9 7.24 11.6 12.6 23.1 15.7 10.1 5.63 6.69 8.52 11.9 7.18 35.5
Rb 72.7 63.8 50.8 80.1 58.5 75.4 66.3 63.9 83.5 70.7 69.2 59.0 40.8 58.2 51.4 65.7 108 52.3 52.7 41.2 55.6 52.6
Sr 616 543 501 674 445 489 556 684 552 602 562 794 673 673 743 358 325 354 403 668 560 532
Y 21.6 22.7 21.3 24.0 21.1 26.5 19.5 24.0 23.5 24.2 22.9 23.2 20.5 23.6 21.1 24.3 24.3 23.5 26.2 24.6 23.1 19.7
Zr 78.0 109 72.6 97.0 72.3 101 87.9 102 105 99.2 87.6 105 75.1 83.8 68.6 111 109 76.3 81.2 69.4 78.4 139
Nb 11.6 11.9 9.58 13.9 11.6 14.6 10.4 10.4 13.4 9.52 11.3 9.45 7.86 9.94 8.83 11.4 15.8 8.47 8.99 8.00 9.93 7.07
Cs 4.40 3.70 3.19 4.25 3.91 4.75 3.33 3.45 3.98 3.76 3.28 2.89 1.97 3.01 2.36 3.34 5.02 2.75 2.43 1.95 2.85 2.65
Ba 375 363 240 400 300 384 301 300 356 257 285 535 246 295 344 224 256 188 378 434 447 258
La 22.2 21.6 15.9 22.1 19.4 24.3 18.1 17.1 21.6 16.8 19.6 17.2 13.6 17.4 15.5 17.2 23.9 14.9 15.3 13.9 16.5 13.5
Ce 41.7 40.4 29.1 41.6 36.9 46.0 34.3 31.9 40.9 32.7 36.8 31.1 24.9 32.6 27.4 31.5 49.0 26.5 27.4 24.4 28.3 24.3
Pr 5.58 5.43 4.08 5.55 4.89 6.11 44.4 4.39 5.43 4.31 4.98 4.29 3.46 4.39 3.93 4.40 6.25 3.82 4.04 3.61 4.12 3.39
Nd 22.7 22.3 16.3 22.5 19.8 24.7 17.9 18.0 21.9 17.6 20.2 17.9 14.4 18.2 16.3 18.2 25.1 16.1 17.1 15.2 17.1 14.0
Sm 4.48 4.43 3.27 4.47 3.96 4.96 3.59 3.84 4.36 3.74 4.14 3.75 3.17 3.85 3.41 3.79 5.07 3.43 3.82 3.75 3.63 3.03
Eu 1.06 1.07 0.92 1.07 0.91 1.16 0.92 1.00 1.01 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.85 1.00 0.90 0.98 1.11 0.92 1.08 1.16 0.95 0.81
Gd 3.91 3.92 3.11 3.89 3.45 4.32 3.18 3.51 3.81 3.45 3.58 3.37 2.86 3.51 3.09 3.48 4.28 3.28 3.57 3.26 3.25 2.80
Tb 0.62 0.64 0.54 0.63 0.56 0.71 0.52 0.59 0.62 0.59 0.59 0.56 0.49 0.59 0.53 0.59 0.70 0.56 0.62 0.57 0.54 0.48
Dy 3.78 3.89 3.49 4.05 3.41 4.29 3.17 3.72 3.77 3.79 3.65 3.55 3.20 3.71 3.28 3.74 4.16 3.63 4.03 3.77 3.45 3.03
Ho 0.79 0.81 0.74 0.81 0.69 0.87 0.66 0.80 0.77 0.80 0.76 0.76 0.69 0.78 0.69 0.79 0.83 0.76 0.87 0.81 0.72 0.65
Er 1.98 2.04 1.89 2.06 1.81 2.28 1.69 2.09 2.02 2.08 1.96 1.96 1.78 2.01 1.77 2.03 2.13 2.00 2.23 2.08 1.87 1.69
Tm 0.33 0.34 0.32 0.34 0.30 0.38 0.28 0.35 0.34 0.35 0.33 0.33 0.30 0.34 0.30 0.35 0.36 0.33 0.37 0.36 0.32 0.29
Yb 2.03 1.95 1.88 2.03 1.72 2.18 1.69 1.64 1.99 2.09 1.95 1.95 1.80 2.01 1.75 2.03 2.16 2.00 2.25 2.09 1.84 1.69
Lu 0.27 0.28 0.26 0.29 0.24 0.31 0.24 0.30 0.29 0.30 0.28 0.28 0.25 0.29 0.25 0.29 0.30 0.29 0.32 0.30 0.26 0.24
Ta 1.08 1.05 1.69 0.99 1.07 1.05 0.67 0.82 0.92 0.81 0.75 1.46 0.84 0.89 0.77 0.99 1.44 1.80 0.71 1.69 1.39 0.65
Pb 14.6 13.9 10.6 12.6 9.24 12.8 18.6 13.0 15.9 18.9 16.9 12.6 12.4 27.4 12.8 17.3 25.3 11.7 9.44 8.38 10.6 14.2
Th 6.58 6.42 5.03 7.40 6.50 8.12 7.54 5.94 7.97 6.06 7.07 5.96 4.27 5.59 5.22 5.76 9.55 4.74 4.70 4.20 5.43 4.27
U 1.74 1.76 1.46 2.10 1.23 1.93 1.79 1.57 1.77 1.75 1.96 2.41 1.53 2.32 2.54 1.66 1.98 1.70 2.25 1.96 4.06 1.60
P
LILE 1072 977 798 1164 812 958 933 1056 1001 938 926 1397 965 1034 1146 655 700 601 840 1149 1072 848
P
HFSE 111 143 104 135 105 142 118 137 142 133 122 137 104 117 98.5 146 149 108 116 102 111 166
P
TTE 594 702 753 714 580 751 664 721 652 832 821 1226 1362 1333 1108 1145 965 646 1411 1245 631 740
P
REE 111 109 81.8 111 98.1 123 90.7 89.2 109 89.7 100 88.0 71.7 90.7 79.1 89.4 125 78.5 83.0 75.3 82.8 69.9
 Group B Group C Group D PL. SEDIMENTS HO. SEDIMENTS

2191/6 2192/10 2267/1 2267/2 2300a 2300/7 2300/13 F1/1 5014/6 5046/69 F1 5064/36 ENK1 GYP1 GYP2 ENK2 ENK5 GYP3 HST
Major elements [XRF analyses in wt.%]
SiO2 58.3 56.7 56.9 58.3 56.3 56.4 57.2 57.2 47.7 51.2 44.8 46.6 50.0 48.2 56.5 38.0 44.1 44.6 36.2
TiO2 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.91 0.90 0.82 0.90 1.29 0.80 0.58 0.98 1.25 0.65 0.78 0.71 0.56 0.68 0.53 0.40
Al2O3 16.0 16.5 16.3 15.9 16.0 16.0 15.5 15.2 10.7 11.9 12.2 12.8 12.2 14.0 11.4 9.65 10.0 8.79 9.61
a
FeO 6.84 6.86 6.87 6.91 7.09 6.18 6.73 6.66 6.28 7.23 5.96 5.85 6.74 7.24 5.55 5.00 4.80 4.74 5.23
MnO 0.16 0.15 0.13 0.17 0.18 0.09 0.15 0.16 0.22 0.20 0.08 0.07 0.14 0.16 0.15 0.10 0.12 0.12 0.15
MgO 4.73 4.66 4.17 4.56 4.80 4.80 7.5 4.56 5.99 7.56 1.42 2.09 6.28 6.46 2.95 6.69 8.12 3.14 10.5
CaO 7.49 8.59 9.08 7.61 9.17 10.5 9.94 9.16 23.7 17.0 31.6 28.7 20.6 18.7 18.8 36.3 28.2 33.8 33.7
Na2O 1.38 1.35 1.35 1.23 1.49 1.12 1.31 1.62 1.61 1.63 0.36 0.53 0.79 1.07 0.76 1.06 1.66 1.24 2.86
K2O 3.27 3.36 3.35 3.31 3.50 3.49 3.33 3.17 1.44 1.81 1.07 0.66 1.80 2.14 2.02 1.20 0.86 1.41 0.54
P2O5 0.24 0.24 0.20 0.60 0.20 0.35 0.27 0.29 1.14 0.39 0.37 1.17 0.10 0.17 0.07 0.10 0.12 0.08 0.08

Total 99.4 99.3 99.3 99.5 99.7 99.7 100 99.4 99.5 99.5 98.9 99.7 99.4 99.0 98.9 98.7 98.6 98.5 99.3
LOI 2.6 4.3 3.6 3.9 13.3 10.2 6.8 3.2 8.4 6.7 14.6 12.5 18.4 16.0 14.7 26.0 22.7 22.2 31.3

Trace elements [ICP-MS analyses in ppm]

C. Tschegg et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 1103–1114

Li 52.0 53.9 53.9 53.2 63.0 43.4 60.1 59.0 17.9 16.3 22.1 11.9 27.4 32.4 19.4 15.6 20.5 11.9 16.2
Be 2.61 2.59 2.64 2.28 2.26 2.37 2.17 2.08 0.60 0.77 1.46 1.23 n.d. 0.80 0.85 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Sc 12.8 12.3 12.1 12.1 13.6 10.1 13.3 13.3 20.5 22.6 7.62 11.0 13.1 11.7 8.45 6.15 6.72 5.31 9.66
V 101 108 99.7 99.1 172 141 165 157 278 266 122 194 117 93.8 75.6 84.5 55.2 53.2 80.8
Cr 139 135 123 141 244 191 230 219 1273 3022 185 237 299 297 601 190 209 265 82.8
Co 19.5 17.7 16.0 18.8 29.7 19.6 28.3 26.6 26.8 54.8 60.0 17.4 18.3 18.4 13.9 8.92 12.0 9.01 11.7
Cu 63.1 49.3 45.1 50.6 237 324 214 211 286 592 36.7 128 35.6 29.5 20.8 18.4 16.1 14.1 30.9
Zn 100 86.8 74.8 84.6 103 128 93.6 88.4 59.8 75.5 68.9 101 56.2 55.6 45.9 30.6 32.7 27.1 35.4
As 6.96 9.62 6.05 8.43 13.7 11.9 13.3 13.0 190 35.0 15.6 52.8 32.6 13.2 18.0 20.7 11.7 15.4 12.8
Rb 98.9 101 101 96.1 150 139 142 139 27.2 28.8 51.6 22.3 42.2 45.6 41.7 22.1 21.6 22.4 10.5
Sr 240 230 287 254 337 361 311 284 707 531 591 939 452 364 259 337 477 221 664
Y 22.5 22.4 22.0 22.4 28.1 27.4 26.5 23.7 18.2 21.7 45.3 35.0 15.3 14.9 16.0 9.38 11.1 9.84 9.10
Zr 85.0 81.5 89.9 85.5 138 127 130 116 75.8 120 130 108 51.4 56.0 58.2 28.0 35.3 31.6 19.8
Nb 15.0 15.1 15.7 14.6 21.2 18.5 20.0 18.9 5.04 6.39 17.3 13.5 5.60 6.47 7.15 2.70 4.25 2.60 1.59
Cs 5.86 5.78 5.84 5.70 7.02 6.67 6.68 6.56 1.00 1.10 2.27 0.73 2.86 3.30 2.57 1.56 1.45 1.36 0.50
Ba 541 356 1044 295 522 295 489 435 346 218 305 675 242 247 295 79.8 101 115 186
La 30.8 30.6 30.7 29.3 33.5 32.4 31.6 29.4 10.1 12.4 8.40 11.0 12.0 14.2 16.5 8.03 9.90 9.77 4.63
Ce 54.7 55.3 57.1 53.8 69.9 61.9 66.1 61.2 17.1 23.5 15.5 17.8 22.8 26.8 31.8 14.8 18.8 17.9 8.17
Pr 7.43 7.36 7.49 7.14 8.49 7.88 8.01 7.44 2.67 3.26 2.05 2.60 2.90 3.37 3.92 1.93 2.42 2.31 1.00
Nd 27.9 27.8 28.1 26.9 31.8 29.4 30.0 27.8 11.4 13.6 8.09 11.0 10.9 12.7 14.8 7.23 9.07 8.64 4.12
Sm 5.45 5.32 5.59 5.19 6.34 5.74 5.98 5.51 2.89 3.01 1.68 2.22 2.38 2.72 3.06 1.58 2.00 1.87 0.85
Eu 1.12 1.09 1.17 1.08 1.34 1.14 1.27 1.16 0.92 0.79 0.40 0.59 0.61 0.68 0.72 0.39 0.51 0.46 0.31
Gd 4.46 4.41 4.43 4.34 5.21 4.74 4.91 4.49 2.41 2.85 1.54 2.01 2.22 2.45 2.71 1.45 1.83 1.67 1.12
Tb 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.82 0.74 0.78 0.71 0.43 0.49 0.25 0.32 0.36 0.40 0.43 0.24 0.30 0.27 0.19
Dy 4.12 4.05 4.06 4.13 4.81 4.46 4.54 4.14 2.76 3.21 1.51 1.95 2.34 2.49 2.67 1.47 1.88 1.69 1.30
Ho 0.84 0.82 0.82 0.84 0.98 0.91 0.92 0.84 0.61 0.69 0.32 0.41 0.49 0.52 0.55 0.31 0.39 0.35 0.29
Er 2.16 2.12 2.10 2.19 2.53 2.38 2.39 2.18 1.57 1.82 0.82 1.06 1.29 1.35 1.45 0.80 1.02 0.90 0.75
Tm 0.35 0.34 0.34 0.36 0.41 0.40 0.39 0.36 n.d. 0.30 0.13 0.18 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.13 0.16 0.15 0.12
Yb 2.05 2.03 2.00 2.10 2.48 2.37 2.34 2.13 1.54 1.81 0.77 0.99 1.29 1.34 1.38 0.77 0.98 0.88 0.74
Lu 0.29 0.28 0.28 0.30 0.35 0.34 0.33 0.30 0.22 0.27 0.11 0.14 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.11 0.14 0.12 0.11
Ta 1.13 1.07 1.11 1.04 1.57 1.56 1.51 1.41 0.81 0.63 1.30 0.88 0.36 0.43 0.50 0.25 0.32 0.18 0.14
Pb 32.2 31.1 31.6 31.1 35.6 22.8 34.5 33.4 8.86 9.46 13.9 62.8 10.5 16.3 14.8 7.57 10.9 10.4 2.70
Th 9.57 9.49 9.98 9.14 13.3 13.2 12.6 12.0 2.33 3.20 8.05 5.00 3.43 4.49 4.69 2.02 2.78 2.75 0.77
U 2.48 2.39 2.56 3.00 3.16 3.19 2.99 2.85 1.79 0.82 2.57 6.61 n.d. 1.13 0.99 0.58 0.75 0.57 0.45
P
LILE 892 699 1445 658 1025 811 959 873 1084 783 958 1648 740 662 601 441 603 362 862
P
HFSE 122 119 128 123 188 173 176 159 99.0 148 193 156 72.3 77.4 81.3 40.1 50.7 44.1 30.5
P
TTE 437 408 370 406 799 814 744 715 1943 4033 480 687 539 506 765 338 331 373 251
P
REE 142 142 145 138 169 155 160 148 54.6 68.0 41.6 52.2 60.0 69.4 80.4 39.3 49.4 47.0 23.7

Loss on ignition; n.d. – not detected; PL. – Pleistocene; HO – Holocene; LILE – Rb, Sr, Ba, Th, U; HFSE – Y, Zr, Nb; TTE – Sc, V, Cr, Co, Cu, Zn; REE – La to Lu.
a

1107
Total iron is shown as FeO.
1108 C. Tschegg et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 1103–1114
a 40
30
CaO [wt. %]
20
10
0 0
40 50 60 70
SiO2+Al2O3+K2O [wt. %]
Fig. 2. Co-variation diagrams for major and trace elements of the analyzed ceramic and sediment samples. (a) Clay constituents (SiO2 þ Al2O3 þ K2O) plotted against CaO and (b)
clay constituents against total REE concentrations. (Pl. sed. – Pleistocene sediments, Ho. sed. – Holocene sediments)
and K2O contents varying between 47.7 and 51.2 wt.%, 10.7 and
11.9 wt.%, 17.0 and 23.7 wt.% and 1.4 and 1.8 wt.% respectively and,
therefore show a similar bulk major element composition as Group
A. Group D, which includes one sample from Tell Abu Hawam and
one from Hala Sultan Tekke, is characterized by comparatively low
amounts of SiO2 and K2O (44.8–46.6 wt.% and 0.7–1.1 wt.%) but
with very high concentrations of CaO (28.7–31.6 wt.%).
The Pleistocene sediments have SiO2, Al2O3, CaO and K2O concen-
trations that range from 48.2 to 56.5 wt.%, 11.4 to 14.0 wt.%, 18.7 to
20.6 wt.% and from 1.8 to 2.4 wt.% respectively; therefore, they plot in
the same range as the Group A samples. The Holocene raw-material
specimens have low SiO2 and Al2O3 contents (36.2–44.6 wt.% and 8.8–
10.1 wt.%) at very high CaO contents (28.2–36.3 wt.%).
4.2. Bulk geochemistry – trace and rare earth elements
To simplify the large set of these elements, they were categorized
into four groups of geochemically related elements (see Table 2): LILE
(large ion lithophile elements: Rb, Sr, Ba, Th, U), HFSE (high field
strength elements: Y, Zr, Nb), TTE (transition trace elements: Sc, V, Cr,
Co, Cu, Zn) and REE (rare earth elements: La–Lu). The total LILE
P
concentrations ( LILE) in Group A range from 604 to 1397 ppm, the
P P
summed HFSE ( HFSE) vary from 99 to 166 ppm, total TTE ( TTE)
P
from 580 to 1411 ppm and the sum of REE ( REE) ranges from 70 to
P
125 ppm. Group B has LILE concentrations from 658 to 1445 ppm,
10
Upper Continental Crust REE from Taylor and McLennan, 1985, McLennan, 2001;
1 sediments from the vicinity of Enkomi and four Pliocene sediments
Rock/UCC
0.1 group A (& range)
group B (& range)
group C
group D
Pleistocene sediments (& range)
Holocene sediments (& range)
0.01
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Fig. 3. Upper Continental Crust (Taylor and McLennan, 1985; McLennan, 2001)
normalized REE patterns showing average sample-group compositions and ranges
(minima–maxima) of element concentrations.
b 200
group A
group B group A
group C group B
group D 150 group C
Pl. sed. group D
ΣREE [ppm]
Ho. sed. Pl. sed.
Ho. sed.
100
50
80 40 50 60 70 80
SiO2+Al2O3+K2O [wt. %]
P P P
HFSE from 119 to 188 ppm, TTE from 370 to 814 ppm and REE
concentrations that range from 139 to 169 ppm. In Group C the total
amount of LILE varies between 783 and 1084 ppm, of HFSE between 99
and 148 ppm, concerning TTE it ranges from 1943 to 4033 ppm and
P
the REE varies from 55 to 68 ppm. Summarized concentrations of
LILE, HFSE, TTE and REE in Group D range from 958 to 1648 ppm,156 to
193 ppm, 480 to 687 ppm and 41 to 52 ppm respectively.
La and Lu concentrations of Group B as well as the overall REE
pattern correspond closest to the composition of the UCC (Upper
Continental Crust; Taylor and McLennan, 1985; McLennan, 2001);
all other samples have lower REE concentrations (Fig. 3) due to
carbonate dilution. Compared to the UCC composition, Group A is
reduced by a factor of 1.7 and 1.1 for La and Lu, respectively,
whereas Group C is depleted by factors of 2.7 and 1.3 and Group D
by 3 and 2.5. The average composition of the Pleistocene sediments
is 2.1 and 1.7 times lower for La and Lu and the Holocene sediments
is 3.8 and 2.7 times lower, respectively.
The mean La/Sm ratio is highest in Group B at 5.5, indicating an
almost flat pattern of light REE (LREE) in contrast to the lowest in
Group C (3.8), which shows the strongest depletion in LREE. All
samples have relatively flat heavy REE (HREE) patterns, with
average Gd/Yb ratios varying from 1.6 in Group C and 2.1 in Group B.
Due to increased modal amounts of feldspars in all analyzed
samples, REE patterns show positive Eu anomalies.
In summary, of the major elements, CaO has the largest variation
and correlates negatively with the major clay mineral constituents
(SiO2, Al2O3, K2O), as well as the REE (see Fig. 2a, b).
Statistical processing of the dataset using principal component
analysis summarizes and nicely illustrates the main geochemical
variations in the studied ceramics and sediments. Group A
comprises the largest cluster of ceramics to which the Pleistocene
from Vaughan (1987) conform. The main group-determining
elements are illustrated in Fig. 4. High concentrations of REE and
their positive correlation with Al2O3 and K2O, as well as compara-
tively low amounts of CaO, account for the separation of samples in
Group B. High TTE concentrations separate samples of Group C
from all other samples, whereas Group D is characterized by low
REE as well as high CaO and HFSE amounts. The collected Holocene
sediments have the by far highest amounts of CaO, which effec-
tively dilutes the minor and trace element contents.
4.3. Petrography and mineralogy
Despite variations of paste textures (sorting, size and morphology of
inclusions) and differences concerning the temperature of firing
 C. Tschegg et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 1103–1114
3.0
2.0
1.0
Principal component 2
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
-3.0 -2.0
Fig. 4. Score plot of a principal component analysis based on 22 major and trace elements (TiO2, Al2O3, FeO, MgO, MnO, CaO, Na2O and K2O in wt.%; Li, Sc, V, Cr, Co, Cu, Zn, Sr, Y, Zr,
Nb, Ba, La and Ce in ppm) restricted by availability of data in the literature. PC1 (46.2%) and PC2 (21.4%) explain 67.5% of the total variance of a dataset that includes all ceramic
samples and sediments of this study together with four sediment-analyses from Vaughan (1987). Ceramic specimens are indicated by open circles, sediments by full circles. Main
group-determining elements as well as group-combining fields are also given.
(already described in Tschegg et al., 2009), the ceramics can be divided
into the same four groups based upon their included components
(minerals, rock and ceramic fragments, fossils):
Group A: The phyllosilicate paste matrix covers grain dimen-
sions ranging from clay to mainly silt size. Within the matrix clay
minerals, 80 mm sized or smaller sub-angular inclusions of quartz,
feldspars, and accessory Fe- and Ti-oxides, as well as micas are
present. Quartz, plagioclase and calcareous grains of sand size are
included in the paste in varying modal amounts and shapes (sub-
rounded to angular). The calcareous phases mainly include micritic
and sparitic rock-fragments and a conspicuous assemblage of
foraminifera, together with scarce large shell fragments. A few
inclusions of gabbro and sandstone fragments are characteristic, as
are accessorial single pyroxene grains.
Group B: A fine-grained silty clay-sized paste matrix is typical of
this group, that, despite slightly smaller amounts of quartz and
feldspar inclusions, is identical to that of Group A. Very scarce and
small inclusions of quartz and sandstone fragments, up to 1 mm in
size, together with angular and scattered embedded grains of the
same mineral and same rock type have been observed. Occasion-
ally, grog inclusions as well as fossils can be found.
Group C: The paste matrix is essentially similar to that of Group
A. A high amounts of diopside, olivine and Fe-, Cr- and Ti-rich
oxides like magnetite, Cr-spinel and Ti-magnetite as well as
numerous gabbroic rock-fragments have been recorded in these
sherds. Furthermore grog-tempering, with clasts up to 500 mm and
considerable amounts of carbonate fragments as well as calcareous
microfossils have been observed.
Group D: A highly calcareous silty paste matrix with included
micritic carbonate fragments (up to 400 mm), few quartz and
1109
5046/69
5014/6
- Ca
Sherd6
+ Al, K
Sherd1 + REE
+Ca
- Al, K
- REE
- TTE
- HFSE
-1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0
Principal component 1
anorthite grains as well as some large gabbroic rock-fragments
(300–400 mm) form the paste. Grog inclusions (up to 700 mm) and
sparse fossils are additional distinctive features.
X-ray diffraction was used, first, to obtain a comparable over-
view of the main minerals forming the ceramics and, second, to
define the bulk as well as clay mineral fraction of the collected
sediments. The diffraction patterns obtained from the ceramics and
their potential raw materials were then compared and assessed.
Fig. 5 shows a lineup of the two collected groups of sediments and
two low-temperature fired (Tschegg et al., 2009) ceramic samples,
one representative for Group A, the other for Group D. The
diffraction patterns of sediment ENK1 (Fig. 5b) and sample 2248/9
(Fig. 5e) show the same proportions for the main quartz (3.343 Å),
calcite (3.035 Å) and feldspar peaks. The <2 mm fraction of ENK1
(Fig. 5c), showing the clay mineralogy, indicates the existence of
smectite and illite group minerals (15 Å and 10 Å) as well as chlorite
and lesser amount of kaolinite group minerals. The main peak of
smectite moved from 15 Å to 17 Å when treated with ethylene-
glycol (Fig. 5c, d), confirming both its existence and expandable
character (Moore and Reynolds, 1997). The chlorite group minerals
are indicated by the 7.17 Å and 3.541 Å peaks (Fig. 5c) and the
kaolinite group by the common peak at 7.17 Å and the 3.579 Å peak.
The diffraction pattern in Fig. 5a represents the analyzed Holocene
raw-materials, sediments with higher amounts of feldspars and
calcite as well as additional dolomite (2.88 Å). Their <2 mm fraction
generally shows much lower clay mineral contents, with no illite
and hardly detectable amounts of chlorite and kaolinite group
minerals. Dominant calcite and dolomite peaks are also character-
istic features of samples from Group D (Fig. 5f), that are similar to
the bulk mineralogy of the Holocene sediments (Fig. 5a).
1110 C. Tschegg et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 1103–1114

Fig. 5. X-ray diffraction patterns of (a) ENK2 – representative for Holocene sediments, (b) ENK1 – representative for Pleistocene sediments, (c) <2 mm fraction of ENK1, (d) <2 mm
fraction of ENK1 saturated with Ethylene-glycol, (e) 2248/9 – representative for Group A samples and (f) 5064/36 representative for Group D. Relevant peaks are labelled, some with
abbreviations: chl – chlorite group, ill – illite group, ka – kaolinite group, sm – smectite group minerals.

4.4. Palaeontological observations
As the investigated ceramics, especially Groups A and C, contain
numerous well-preserved calcareous microfossils, the fossil
contents of the raw materials were examined. The >63 mm fraction
of the Pleistocene sediment ENK1 has a fossil fauna of benthonic
and planktonic foraminifera, holothurian sclerites and scaphopod
dentalia. The equivalent microfossils have also been found in sherds
of Groups A and C and partly in Groups B and D. Fig. 6 compares the
fossil assemblage found in both the sediment and the PWW
samples.
4.5. Microstructural observations
Examination of the ceramic samples has indicated that micro-
structural features (geometric and morphological characteristics of
the paste and its inclusions), which are commonly used to cate-
gorize sherds of different origins, are inappropriate for pottery
discriminating of the available PWW samples. The reason is that
different techniques of paste preparation and firing can lead to
pronounced variations of paste textures, despite the fact that the
same sediment was initially used (Tschegg et al., 2009).
Macroscopically, a few PWW ware sherds have what seems to
be an intentionally manufactured slip or some kind of ‘‘self-slip’’
that formed as a result of final vessel smoothing. Close investigation
of this material revealed that not only refining of the clay paste at
the surface of vessels can result in a whitening of ceramic surfaces
but also a strong increase in porosity at the surface can lead to
a brighter appearance. Backscattered-electron imagery (Fig. 7)
shows a 200 mm thick surface layer in which the average porosity
has increased by 25% compared to the body of the sherd. Three
element-indicative WDS-mappings (Fig. 7a–c) show the distribu-
tion of Ca in 150  112 mm large areas in the ceramic body, the
surface layer and their transition zone. As indicated by these
calcium distribution maps as well as line scans that were carried
out from the ceramic body into the surface layer, the calcium
content at the surface is reduced to more than half compared to the
body. Unlike an abrupt intersection between ceramic body and
surface that would be typical for slips, these interfaces here show
a gradual transition.
5. Discussion
By combining bulk geochemical, petrographical and mineral-
ogical features, the investigated Cypriot PWW ware samples,
together with the comparative material from Cyprus and the
northern Canaanite coast, have been divided into four groups. Raw/
source material assignments have also generally been made:
Group A combines most of the samples that were excavated
directly in Enkomi, but also includes additional sherds found at
other Cypriot locations. A combination of the compositional data
and visual observations of the material of this group suggests
a common raw-material source, due to their mineralogical and
palaeozoological assemblage, as well as their bulk geochemical and
petrographic characteristics. As a consequence of the different
modal amounts of included calcareous phases, their bulk CaO
content is variable and shows a relative range of 12 wt.% (12.2–
23.6 wt.%). With increasing concentrations of CaO, the percentage
of clay constituents SiO2, Al2O3 and K2O decrease, as do most of the
trace elements (see Fig. 2a, b). This trend has been observed in all
analyzed samples of this study and clearly indicates the dilutive
function of carbonates (and calcareous inclusions in general) con-
taining low amounts of trace elements and REE (Taylor and
McLennan, 1985). In this case, therefore, systematic variations of
major and trace element concentrations can to a large extent be
assigned to variable modal amounts of calcareous inclusions. The
 C. Tschegg et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 1103–1114 1111

Fig. 6. BSE images of the microfossil assemblage found in ceramics of Group A (left side) opposing the same kind of fossils found in the fraction >63 mm of the Pleistocene sediment
ENK1 (right side). (a) Holothurian sclerite, (b and e) benthonic foraminifera, (c) planktonic foraminifera, (d) scaphopod dentalium.
1112 C. Tschegg et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 1103–1114
Fig. 7. Backscattered-electron image showing the surface area of sherd 2191/2 (Group A). Calcium indicative WDS-mappings illustrate the distribution of Ca in the ceramic body
(Fig. 7c), its surface layer (Fig. 7a) and the transition zone (Fig. 7b). Ca maps exactly cover the areas where they are indicated.
Pleistocene sediment samples that were collected in the immediate
surrounding of the Enkomi excavation site fulfil the qualifications
for being a potential raw material for the production of Group A
ceramics. Comparing the bulk composition (Figs. 2–4), mineralogy
(Fig. 5) as well as microfossil content (Fig. 6) of the sediments with
the sherds of Group A, they show a strong similarity. The slightly
lower amounts of trace elements in the sediments correlate with
the larger shell-fragments that are sporadically included in the
sediment and which were not removed before bulk analysis.
Comparing average REE concentrations of Group A sherds to the
mean REE contents of 38 Corinthian-style roof tiles derived from
Mesaoria sediments around Enkomi (Gomez et al., 2002), shows
very similar REE concentrations; La in the roof tiles reaches
17.79 ppm (std. dev.: 1.07), Eu 0.93 (std. dev.: 0.06) and Lu 0.29 (std.
dev.: 0.03), whereas in the Group A, La reaches 18.07 ppm (std. dev.:
3.30), Eu 0.99 ppm (std. dev.: 0.09) and Lu 0.28 ppm (std. dev.:
0.02).
Apart from a common source material, inferred from micro-
and macro-textural details, the ceramics of Group A indicate
fabrication with a simple manufacturing technique. Although
coarse shell fragments (>2 mm) were presumably separated out of
the Pleistocene material, in all other respects the material could
have been used directly for manufacturing.
The geochemically homogeneous samples of Group B seem to
have the same raw-material source as Group A but indicate
different preparation techniques prior to manufacturing the
pottery. The source material, as suggested from the observed
refinement of the fabric, was levigated. As a consequence, the lack
of large calcareous inclusions (>1 mm) systematically increased the
bulk budget of trace elements (Figs. 2 and 3). However, primary
sediment heterogeneities in the Pleistocene outcrops that were not
recognizable in the field could also account for the lack of shell
fragments.
The flat LREE patterns, as well as the high REE abundances in
general, confirm the features of a chemically non-diluted material
whose composition is relatively close to UCC (Taylor and McLennan,
1985; McLennan, 2001). Larger angular inclusions of sandstone and
related quartz grains, as well as grog, may possibly indicate
intentional tempering of these phases.
The microstructural investigations, mainly concerning the paste
matrix, also indicate that Group C has the same characteristics as
Group A. However, the sand sized mineralogical assemblage in the
paste of this group shows a stronger affinity to rocks from the
Troodos ophiolite (McCallum and Robertson, 1995; Poole and
Robertson, 1998). Although they include microfossils that have
been found in the in the Pleistocene formations of the eastern
Mesaoria Plain, the increased modal abundance of Fe–Cr–Ti bearing
ores, pyroxenes and olivine reveal a raw-material source that lays
closer to the Troodos massif and was therefore richer in ophiolite-
derived material (Garzanti et al., 2000). The high TTE abundances
(Fig. 2c) in Group C also show a link to mafic–ultramafic rocks and
thus also suggest a source material from Troodos-derived sedi-
mentary successions, most likely from the area between the Gulf of
Famagusta and Larnaca.
The highly calcareous paste matrix in sherds of Group D
precludes any correlation with the Pleistocene eastern Mesaoria
sediments. Their XRD patterns indicate an origin from younger,
more heterogeneous sedimentary successions with a much higher
Ca content and dolomite in their fine-fraction (see Fig. 5).
Detailed investigations of Pleisto- and Holocene sediments from
the eastern Mesaoria Plain show that the clay mineral content in
the <2 mm fraction is much higher in the Pleistocene than in the
younger materials. The higher amounts, especially of expandable
clay minerals (smectite group minerals) and their admixture with
illite and chlorite as well as the naturally included calcareous
phases, made the Pleistocene silty clays a preferred, easily workable
raw material that, when fired to the correct temperature, provided
high-quality physical and mechanical properties (Tschegg et al.,
2009). From bulk geochemical and mineralogical aspects, the
Pleistocene sediments from the area around Enkomi are probable
and potential source materials for the fabrication of ceramics of
Groups A, B and C, with variations that result from different raw-
material conditioning techniques and regional inhomogeneities.
The microfossil assemblage that has been traced in both the sedi-
ments and their ceramic products, confirms the close relationship
between the abovementioned materials (see Fig. 6). This demon-
strates that microfossils can serve as a powerful additional tool to
provenance the raw materials of ceramics (Quinn and Day, 2007).
Sherds of Group D are not associated with the Pleistocene raw
materials and were presumably derived from young alluvial
sediments in the area.
Examinations have shown that the white surfaces observed on
some samples were not caused by smoothing but are more likely
a result of surface corrosion through post-depositional alteration
 C. Tschegg et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 1103–1114
(see Fig. 7). During burial, Ca, especially when in calcite (Schwedt
et al., 2004), can leach out at of near-surface layers, thus causing
a porosity increase with a concomitant enlargement of the specific
surface area. Post-depositional processes, such as soil invading and
percolating fluids particularly affect surface-near extraction/disso-
lution of sherd constituents (Maggetti, 1982). The resulting high-
porous, whitish appearing surface layer is an analogue effect to the
espresso-crema that gets its light colour through reflection, refrac-
tion and scattering of light at increased gas–solid/gas–liquid
interfaces (Durian et al., 1991; Vera et al., 2001). Moreover, just like
the espresso crema, the sherd-surface beyond the physical alter-
ation additionally changes its chemical composition compared to
the base material.
6. Conclusions
In this study, Late Cypriot Bronze Age Plain White Wheelmade
ware samples excavated in Cyprus and the Canaanite coast have
been assigned to specific sediment sources on eastern Cyprus. By
using petrographic, mineralogical, palaeontological, petrological
and geochemical evidence, four groups of ceramics have been
distinguished. Sherds of Groups A and B were manufactured from
Pleistocene sediments that occur in the eastern Mesaoria Plain,
around Enkomi. However, despite utilizing the same raw-material
source, they differ in some details, presumed to reflect varying
paste preparation techniques. This implies not only that potters
from ancient Enkomi used the Pleistocene silty clays as base
material. Moreover it signifies that in all likelihood diverse work-
shops existed that had variability in clay preparation techniques,
workshop differentiations through morphological vessel charac-
teristics were already observed by Keswani (1991). As the raw
material that was used for the production of Group C is very similar
to that used for Groups A and B, only differing in the noticeable
influence of Troodos ophiolite-derived igneous components, a raw-
material source geographically closer to the Troodos massif,
although still in the Mesaoria Plain, has been assumed. The origin of
Group D samples has not been located exactly; nevertheless, they
show strong similarities to the younger Holocene sediments that
are also available around Famagusta Bay.
The assignment of ceramic commodities from several Cypriot
excavation sites and from the Canaanite coast to relatively
centralized pottery workshops that were situated in Eastern
Cyprus proves the existence of trade networks within the island
during the Late Bronze Age and probably beyond. In addition to the
traditional archaeological approach of typological vessel discrim-
ination, we present the allocation of utilitarian ceramics such as
the PWW ware to a local production place by using the given
scientific approach.
The paper in the end demonstrates the necessity of using
integrated methods in pottery analysis studies, to provide suffi-
cient information for accurate statements concerning affiliations,
provenance and technology of ancient ceramics.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Austrian Science Foundation
FWF (grant P18908-N19). We are grateful to Pavlos Flourentzos
(Director of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus) for permission
to export sherds from Enkomi for analysis and to Lindy Crewe
(University of Manchester, Great Britain) for identifying appro-
priate samples. Paul Åström (University of Gothenburg, Sweden)
and Michal Artzy (University of Haifa, Israel) are thanked for
providing PWW samples from Cyprus and Tell Abu Hawam and
useful site-specific information. Shalom Yanklevitz, Ragna Stidsing
and Yossi Salmon (University of Haifa, Israel) are thanked for
1113
fruitful discussions and information. We would like to express our
sincere gratitude to Olga Wronska for her field assistance in Cyprus.
Thanks also to Prof. Johann Hohenegger (Department of Paleon-
tology, University of Vienna) for the identification of microfossils.
We thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful and
constructive comments and A.H.N. Rice (Department of Geo-
dynamics and Sedimentology, University of Vienna) for thorough
revision of the final manuscript.
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