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8 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 16 1
2 4 8 16 32 64 2
1
This is an example of an
Power and Taylor Series infinite series.
4
1
This series converges (approaches a limiting value.)
1 1 1 1 1
Many series do not converge:
1 2 3 4 5
In an infinite series: a1 a2 a3 an ak Geometric Series:
k 1
Example 1: Example 2:
3 3 3 3 1 1 1
1
10 100 1000 10000 2 4 8
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a 1 r n
A power series is in this form:
The partial sum of a geometric series is: Sn
1 r c x n
n
c0 c1 x c2 x 2 c3 x 3 cn x n
0
a 1 r n
n0
a or
If r 1 then lim
n 1 r 1 r
c ( x a)
n0
n
n
c0 c1 ( x a ) c2 ( x a ) 2 c3 ( x a ) 3 cn ( x a ) n
If x 1 and we let r x , then: The coefficients c0, c1, c2… are constants.
1
1 x x 2 x3 The center “a” is also a constant.
1 x
(The first series would be centered at the origin if you
The more terms we use, the better our approximation graphed it. The second series would be shifted left or right.
(over the interval of convergence.) “a” is the new center.)
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P x a0 a1 x a2 x 2 a3 x3 a4 x 4 f x ln x 1 P x a0 a1 x a2 x 2 a3 x3 a4 x 4 f x ln x 1
f x ln x 1 P x a0 a1 x a2 x 2 a3 x3 a4 x 4 f x
1 P x 2a2 6a3 x 12a4 x 2
1 x
2
1
f 0 ln 1 0 P 0 a0 a0 0 1 P 0 2a2 a2
f 0 1 2
1
f x
1 P x a1 2a2 x 3a3 x 2 4a4 x3
1 x
P x 6a3 24a4 x
1
f x 2
P 0 a1 a1 1 1 x
3
1
f 0 1 2
1
f 0 2 P 0 6a3 a3
6
f x
1 P x 2a2 6a3 x 12a4 x 2
1 x
2
P 0 2a2 a2
1 f
4
x 6
1
P
4
x 24a4
1
f 0 1 1 x
4
2 6
1
f
4
0 6 P 4
0 24a4 a4
24
P x a0 a1 x a2 x 2 a3 x3 a4 x 4 f x ln x 1 Our polynomial:
1 2
0 1x x 2 x 3
6 4
x
2 6 24
1 2 2 3 6 4 f 0 2 f 0 3 f 4 0 4
P x 0 1x x x x has the form: f 0 f 0 x x x x
2 6 24 2 6 24
x 2 x3 x 4 f 0 f 0 f 0 2 f 0 3 f 4 0 4
P x 0 x f x ln x 1 or: x x x x
2 3 4 0! 1! 2! 3! 4!
example: y cos x
Maclaurin Series:
(generated by f at x 0 ) f x cos x f 0 1 f x sin x f 0 0
f 0 2 f 0 3 f x sin x f 0 0 f
4
x cos x f
4
0 1
P x f 0 f 0 x x x
2! 3!
f x cos x f 0 1
If we want to center the series (and it’s graph) at some
point other than zero, we get the Taylor Series: 1x 2 0 x3 1x 4 0 x5 1x 6
P x 1 0x
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
Taylor Series:
(generated by f at xa ) P x 1
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8 x10
2! 4! 6! 8! 10!
f a f a
P x f a f a x a x a x a
2 3
2! 3!
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example: y cos x at x
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8 x10 2
y cos x P x 1
2! 4! 6! 8! 10!
f x cos x f 0 f x sin x f 1
2 2
1 f x sin x f 1
4
2 f
4
x cos x f 0
2
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 f x cos x f 0
2
-1
0 1
2 3
P x 0 1 x x x
2 2! 2 3! 2
The more terms we add, the better our approximation.
3 5
x x
Hint: On the TI-89, the factorial symbol is:
P x x
2
2
2 3! 5!
Maclaurin Series:
(generated by f at x 0 )
f 0 2 f 0 3
P x f 0 f 0 x x x
2! 3!
1 f 0 2 f 0 3 1 f 0 2 f 0 3
1 x 1 x
1 1
P x f 0 f 0 x x x P x f 0 f 0 x x x
1 x 2! 3! 1 x 2! 3!
f n x f n x f n 0
List the function and its List the function
Evaluateandcolumn
its one
1 x 1 x
1 1
derivatives. 1 derivatives.
1 for x = 0. 2 3! 4!
1 1x x2 x3 x 4
1 x 2! 3! 4!
1 x 1 x
2 2
1
2 1 x 2 1 x
3 3
2 1
1 x x 2 x3 x 4
1 x
6 1 x 6 1 x
4 4
6 3!
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1 1 f 0 2 f 0 3
1 x
1
We could generate this same series for with P x f 0 f 0 x x x
1 x 1 x 2! 3!
polynomial long division:
1 x x 2 x3 f n x f n 0
1 x 1
1 x
1
1
1 x 1 2
1 1x x 2
3! 3 4! 4
x x
1 x 2! 3! 4!
1 x
2
x 1
x x2
2 1 x
3
2 1
x2 1 x
1 x x 2 x3 x 4
x 2 x3 6 1 x 6 3!
4
3
x This is a geometric series with
24 1 x
5
24 4!
a = 1 and r = -x.
f 0 2 f 0 3
We wouldn’t expect to use the previous two series to cos x P x f 0 f 0 x x x
evaluate the functions, since we can evaluate the 2! 3!
functions directly.
f n x f n 0
They do help to explain where the formula for the sum of
an infinite geometric comes from. cos x 1
1 2 0 3 1 4
cos x 1 0 x x x x
2! 3! 4!
sin x 0
We will find other uses for these series, as well. cos x 1 x2 x4 x6
cos x 1
2! 4! 6!
sin x 0
A more impressive use of Taylor series is to Both sides are even functions.
evaluate transcendental functions. cos x 1
Cos (0) = 1 for both sides.
f 0 2 f 0 3 f 0 2 f 0 3
sin x P x f 0 f 0 x x x ln 1 x P x f 0 f 0 x x x
2! 3! 2! 3!
f n x f n 0 f n x f n 0
sin x 0 ln 1 x 0
0 2 1 3 0 4 1 2 2 3 3! 4
sin x 0 1x x x x ln 1 x 0 1x x x x
2! 3! 4! 2! 3! 4!
cos x 1 x
1
1 1
sin x 1 x
2
0 x3 x5 x 7 1 x 2 x3 x 4
sin x x ln 1 x x
3! 5! 7! 2 3 4
cos x 2 1 x
3
1 2
Both sides are odd functions.
sin x 6 1 x
4
0 6 3!
Sin (0) = 0 for both sides.
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f 0 2 f 0 3
ex P x f 0 f 0 x x x
2! 3!
f n x f n 0
ex 1
1 2 1 3 1 4
e x 1 1x x x x
We have saved the best for last! x
2! 3! 4!
e 1
x 1
e x 2 x3 x 4
ex 1 x
2! 3! 4!
ex 1
ex 1