Atmospheric Sciences 321

Science of Climate
Lecture 2: Some Thermodynamics
& Energy Balance
 Conservation of Energy
First Law of Thermodynamics
—  To the extent possible, we like to use the
fundamental laws of science to understand climate.

—  First and foremost is conservation of energy

—  For a system under consideration,
—  Energy In = Change in Energy plus Work extracted

dQ = dU + dW
 First Law Manipulations
—  First Law dQ = dU + dW
—  Specific heat at constant volume
⎛ dU ⎞
dU = cv dT cv = ⎜
⎝ dT ⎟⎠ constant volume
—  Work is force through distance, or pressure through
volume change
dW = pdα where α = ρ −1 , and ρ is density

—  Now first law is written as,

dQ = cv dT + pdα
 First Law Manipulations
—  First Law dQ = cv dT + pdα
—  We can rewrite the work term as follows
pdα = d( pα ) − α dp = d(RT ) − α dp = RdT − α dp
—  Where we used the ideal gas law
p = ρ RT , or pα = RT

—  And get yet another form of the first law

dQ = c p dT − α dp c p = cv + R
—  Now written with the specific heat at constant
pressure
 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
—  Suppose no heat is added or subtracted =
adiabatic

—  Then first law is dQ=0 and

c p dT = α dp

—  Let use the hydrostatic relation to replace dp with

dz. dp = − ρ g dz

—  Then

This is the dry adiabatic lapse rate

 Potential Temperature
—  The temperature a parcel of air would have if it was
brought adiabatically to a reference pressure from
any other temperature and pressure.

—  Again we start with the first law

c p dT − α dp = 0
—  use the ideal gas law again, and rearrange
RT
c p dT − dp = 0
p
dT R dp
− =0
T cp p
 Potential Temperature -2
—  We had dT R dp
− =0
T cp p

—  We can integrate this from θ , p0 to T, p.

T dT R p dp
∫θ T − c p ∫ p0 p = 0
—  The integrals are easy since, dT = d lnT
dp
= d ln p
T p
R
lnT − ln θ − ( ln p − ln p0 ) = 0
cp
—  or
⎛ R⎞
T ⎜ ⎛ p ⎞ cp ⎟
ln = ln ⎜ ⎟
θ ⎜ ⎝ p0 ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
 Potential Temperature - 3
⎛ R⎞
—  We had T ⎜ ⎛ p ⎞ cp ⎟
ln = ln ⎜ ⎟
θ ⎜ ⎝ p0 ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

—  Exponentiate both sides,

R R
−
⎛ p⎞ cp ⎛ p0
⎞ cp
θ =T⎜ ⎟ =T⎜ ⎟ = constant
⎝ p0 ⎠ ⎝ p⎠

—  Theta is the temperature that a parcel of air would

have if you brought it from its original temperature
and pressure to a reference pressure p0 through an
adiabatic process.
 Example
—  You are flying in an airplane at 300hPa, about
10km up.

—  You want to bring in fresh air from the outside,

where it is 220K. The cabin pressure is 800hPa.

—  If you bring air in adiabatically, what is its

temperature when you get it inside.

R 287
⎛ p0 ⎞ cp ⎛ 800 ⎞ 1004
θ =T⎜ ⎟ = constant = 220K ⎜ = 291K
⎝ p⎠ ⎝ 300 ⎟⎠

291K = 18˚C= 64˚F

 Moisture is Important
—  The mass mixing ratio of water vapor, mv is mass of
vapor and md is mass of dry air.

mv
w=
md
—  Specific humidity is ratio of mass of vapor to mass
of wet air.
mv
q=
md + mv
 Condensation Heats Air
—  When vapor in air condenses it heats the air

dQ = −Lv dws
—  Lv is the latent heat of vaporization/condensation
and ws is the saturation mass mixing ratio

—  With a little bit of work we can show that,

approximately
Lv ⎛ Lv ws ⎞
dws ≅ d ⎜ ⎟
c pT ⎝ p ⎠
c T

—  Because dws/ws >> dT/T

 Equivalent Potential Temperature
—  Rewrite First Law of Thermo, yet again as
dQ dT dp dQ dθ
= cp −R or =
T T p T θ

—  Now stick in our heating rate for condensation of

water
dθ ⎛ Lv ws ⎞
= −d ⎜ ⎟
θ ⎝ p ⎠
c T
—  and integrate
Lv ws ⎛θ⎞
− ≅ ln θ + constant = ln ⎜ ⎟
c pT ⎝ θe ⎠
 Equivalent Potential Temperature
—  First Law of Thermo, yet again as

Lv ws ⎛θ⎞
− ≅ ln θ + constant = ln ⎜ ⎟
c pT ⎝ θe ⎠
—  So we can define Equivalent Potential Temperature
⎛ Lv ws ⎞
θ e = θ exp ⎜ ⎟
⎝ p ⎠
c T
—  This is the temperature that a saturated parcel of air
would have if you squeezed out all the water, keeping
the latent heat, then brought it to standard pressure, p0
 Adiabatic
Lapse Rates
—  Moist and Dry Adiabatic
Lapse Rates

—  Moist is less, since

latent heat is added to
temperature as the
parcel rises and cools.
 Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rates are
Temperature Dependent
—  Dashed -Dry
—  Solid – Moist 12

—  As surface 10 Moist and Dry

temperature Adiabats
goes up, the 8
moist lapse
Altitude (km)

rate
6
decreases,
—  and the 4
warming
amplification 2
with altitude
increases 0
−60 −40 −20 0 20 40
Temperature (˚C)
 Zonal Structure of Change
In Lecture 1 we showed that the warming increases with altitude
in the Tropics. This is because of water vapor increasing near the
surface, following the 7% per C˚ rule

More
Warming

More water vapor

 Saturation Vapor vs Temperature
—  Saw in previous that moist adiabatic lapse rate is
very sensitive to temperature.

—  This is because saturation vapor pressure is very

sensitive to pressure.

—  Clausius Clapeyron des L

=
dT T (α v − α l )
—  es is saturation vapor pressure, α vand α l are
specific volume of vapor and liquid
 Saturation Vapor vs Temperature
—  Let’s do some rough scaling of CC
des L L L es
= ≈ 
dT T (α v − α l ) T α v RvT 2

—  Rearrange a tiny bit

Δq* Δes ⎛ L ⎞ ΔT ΔT
= = ⎜ ⎟ = r
q *
es ⎝ RvT ⎠ T T

Δes ΔT
≈ 20
es T
So 1˚K ~ 7% change in saturation vapor pressure
 Pseudoadiabatic Chart
—  We will use coordinates of pR/cp versus T
—  In these coordinates, lines of constant potential
temperature are straight and are called adiabats –
they are black and marked in ˚K

—  Lines of constant equivalent potential temperature

are called pseudoadiabats and are red dashed, also
marked in ˚K

—  Lines of constant saturation mass mixing ratio, ws

are plotted in solid red. (how slope these?)
Rd ⎛ es ⎞ Rd es
ws = ⎜ ⎟ ≈
Rv ⎝ p − es ⎠ Rv p
Pseudoadiabatic Chart
Pseudoadiabatic Chart
(higher up)
 Global Energy Balance
—  The source of energy for the climate is the sun,
internal sources of heat are small compared to the
absorption of solar radiation and the emission of
longwave radiation.
—  The Sun puts out a total energy flux of about 3.9 x
1026 Watts (Joules per second)
—  But it is about 1.5 x 1011 meters away from Earth
—  The energy output is about uniform in every
direction, so you get the irradiance (Watts per
meter squared) by dividing by the area of a sphere
with the diameter of the Earth’s mean distance
from the Sun
 Irradiance at Sun’s Photosphere
—  The radius of the Sun’s photosphere is about 6.96
x 108 m
L0 3.9 × 10 26 W
IrradiancePhotosphere = = = 6.4 × 10 7 Wm −2
( )
2 2
4π rphotosphere 8
4π 6.96 × 10 m

—  The emission temperature, if the sun was a black

body would be,
Irradiance = σ Te4

Irradiance 4 6.4 × 10 7 Wm −2
Te = 4 = −8 −2 −4
= 5796K
σ 5.67 × 10 Wm K
Emission Temperature of Planet

—  Set absorbed solar radiation equal to longwave

emission

—  Solar absorption and longwave emission areas are

different

—  Shadow Area is solar absorption area, a circle

 Emission Temperature
—  Absorbed Solar radiation = Solar Irradiance x
absorptivity x shadow area = Watts
S0 (1 − α p ) π rp2 = Absorbed Solar Radiation

—  Emitted Terrestrial Radiation = emissivity x

blackbody emission x emission area = Watts

σ Te4 4π rp2 = Emitted Terrestrial Radiation

—  In = Out
S0 (1 − α p )
S0 (1 − α p ) π rp2 = σ Te4 4π rp2 Te = 4
4σ
 Earth’s Emission Temperature
—  S0 is about 1360 Wm-2
S0 (1 − α p )
—  Planetary albedo is about 0.3 Te = 4
4σ

1360Wm −2 (1 − 0.3)
Te = 4 −8 −2 −4
 255K = −18˚C = 0˚F
4 × 5.67 × 10 Wm K

—  Not a good estimate of Earth’s surface

temperature, which is about 288K
—  What’s missing?
 Greenhouse Effect

—  The atmosphere is nearly transparent to solar

radiation (UV, Visible and Near IR).

—  The atmosphere is nearly opaque to terrestrial

radiation (Thermal Infrared)
 Greenhouse Effect

S0
—  TOA (1 − α p ) = σ TA4 = σ Te4
4
4 4
—  Atmosphere σ Ts = 2σ TA
—  Surface S0
σ TA4 + (1 − α p ) = σ Ts4
4
Thank you!