Caor,ts

Cadels
Trr INVENTIoN op the Cadel (Cadeaux) in the early 15th
I century is attributed to Jean Flamel, librarian to the
prominent patron of the arts, th" Duc de Berry. Flamel used
these large, patterned capitals to inscribe the duke's name
in the front of each manuscript. By the mid- 15th century,
Cadels were widely used in northern Europe as single Versals
(pp. 5S-59), mainly in vernacular text written in the various
Despite the apparent complexity of this 16th-
bastard scripts (pp. 66-79). During the l6th century, they century Cadel, the main structure of the letter is
appeared in Italic text in increasingly elaborate forms. easily pennable (pp. S2*83). The fine internal
decoration can be drawn with a flexible steel nib.

Bv rrun END oF the 16th century,

the Cadel was frequently appearing
This Bastard Capital
letter D, with its looped as a Versal in printed form, and the
ascender, is a useJul model advent of copperplate engraving led
Jor drawing a Cadel
(pp.78 7e) to more fanciful elaboration than was
achievable with a broad-edged pen.
CAnr,ts, CAPITALS,
AND MINUSCULES
This paralleled the development of the
\].. These letters were various Italic and Copperplate hands
.":."#[t \
-SlX'f.xtr.-sad 6t' penned in the second
halfofthe 15th @p. 9a-107), with which the Cadel
'-*".r
_f,S,$.(\!\riAtlfftlf !lt ll( .rt century, posibly by was often incorporated.
)lr )i_tJ r\
J\ (l^ L\ r,\ r..) T +' l.- *ii
the English scribe Interlace patterning
-s e tE \\ \,\ r\ Ty .{. Ricardus Franciscus.
s One basic element of The Cadel differs from other capitals
the Cadel contained used as Versals in that it is composed of
in the letter.4 is the
('! left foot, which has interlacing strokes rather than built-up
)' been constructed from strokes (pp. 5S-59).lt is drawn with
three strokes linked
$,{rl.
| . isb\ig a constant pen angle - this produces
by a series of shorter
I.'*' .fFrfra :
strokes. This linking thick and thin strokes that create a
..'_ff.l
system is the key to
f ",'. r\ \
i i .1 g rtirrrl
I
.

more complex letters,

pattern with a continuously changing
!
,\ ..r
,{1r
.
"r.,i such as the H (aboue). direction of line. In this way, substance
It
I is added to an otherwise skeletal letter.
\N \ Interlaced strokes can also be
\.f 1l5 ;' 't ; i;,ri +, '.t* cJfrfil .p.ra.*r6:[. Ca<]els were generally used
used to embellish the ascenders on
tf f,t tt.
. \, :r. [ ; q' Si'*..')
n rt ft .,],,i .i ] r]i';*. ]. .ith Bavard scripts: here.
.*, ?,?, \ \a* ,{f[ +- r( rl .a {.I $..,'. . rhe minuscules rcsemble a the top line of a page of text or the
L i ' German cursive hand
descenders on the bottom line.
'' ' (PP' 7+ 75)

, . ;t: r: .r -"!.,i.::.,:l.,nlil.1:::rt:];:-i:r::1:irlj:-+:i lj:ft:;irl

*,,.*#"
".."
., : ", r.".,'"-...-*"".""-..-,.#
.-',1EL'S Capprs ENce,q.vpp ALPHABET
'i page from a manuscript This alphabet of capitals was
,-,nging to the Duc de Berry engraved by Thomas'Weston
, s,ritten by Jean Flamel in in 1682. Although the main
-rt 1409. Although the basic structure of the letters follows
..--rure of the Cadels is relatively that of Bastard Capitals
'-.1e, the fact that so many have (pp, 78-79), the basic forms
::r LrSed on the same page creates have been embellished with
-:npressive overall effect. typical Cadel scrolls and interlaces.

81
Gorruc Sca.rprs

Cataneo's Cadels
These letters B and C are based on the initials
Cadels of Bernardino Cataneo, writing master at the
Universiry of Siena, Italy, berween 1544 and 15i
In their origrnal form, they were used with rer:
-|a rt of existing Cadel models makes it very difficult to
cREAT vARIETv in Rotunda (pp. 8G87) and Italic (pp. 9G97,:
I assemble a complete alphabet. These examples have been selected
to represent a few general princtples. Although Cadels can look very The skeleton B con-ri-,i.
daunting to accomplish, in practice they are often a great deal easier than of a spine and two bot,

you may think and, when used as Versals, they can look very impressive.
The golden rule is to begin at the core of the letter and work outward. 1. Begin t:.
stem of the B u'i:-
Letter spine a double strok.
Always begin with the spine , with the inn.
of the letter. Here, the spine .l. stroke leadr:,.
is composed of downward into the stro.-,
diamond strokes and straight of the top bo.,'
vertical strokes. The pen angle Next add the sin:.,
for both rypes of strokes is stroke of the lower bo,
between 35o and 45o. leading into a i...
1
1. Establish the
i basic structure The decorative
of the Cadel in
pencil before W1:,x:;'ff{'
ffi
retracing the
strokes in pen.
2. Build up :-
dffi skeletal t,:-
with loop,
Use a pencilfor the
initial planning of the
letter's structure
&- '"
the top oi:-
bowl and sp.
co the left of :
- stem. Scrolls crr.
added as a final flour-

The top
oJ the b.,
has bean
extendei

The Cadel k decorated

Diamond strokes with delicate Jlower 1. To begin th.
A series of diamond and leaffoms draw the spine ,
strokes is a common the top cura-e -:
feature of the Cadel
spine. Move the pen p" "ffi;b;;;
single str;.,

downward in a curve can

c ontrolled, zigzaggSng drawn irt t
movement, without form of a to,
altering the pen angle.
A pen angle of45o
will give symmetrical The inner haiiline strok,
2. Once the
scallops are similar tr. :
diamonds. main strokes
used in Cothic C,i;
of the letter
are penned,
flourishes and
decoration
can be added.

Maintain a
pen angle
I 2. Build up i
45o for
series of short,
a
# Cadel
system
sid
neat diamonds
linh
diminishir
strokes to cre:
"boxes" (opposit

82
 Caous

Drawing a Cad,el A Cadel ornarnentation

This apparently complex A can be built up In order to build up the weight of a main stroke or to create a change
quite quickly in four stages. Diamonds have in line direction, various types of ornamentation can be used. The
This pattern
been drawn into the legs of the,4, so keep patterns shown below have all been created with the pen at a constant
in.uolues a series of
a constant pen angle to ensure an even angle. Each involves a series of short strokes that move at 90o to each
other in a series of thin and thick "boxes." This simple device can be four small "boxes,"
distribution of thick and thin strokes.
adapted to form increasingly complex patterns. followed by a line of
three "boxes" .

A constant pen angle is

essential in the creation
/"qaryryzr/ of "box" patteffis
1. Begin by penning the
five basic components of
the letter: the two legs,
two feet and top stroke.
Allow yourself ample
space between strokes.

Terminal "boxes" Basic "boxed" strokes ttBox" steps

Straight horizontal strokes are
best auoided, so wse curued
diagonalsfor thefeet of the
,fr!\>
The basic principle of the "boxed" stroke In a principle similar to the
In this pattern, the
use of "boxes" allows is that when the pen moves sideways, a thin basic "boxed" stroke (aboue
A line is produced, and when it moves upward left), this pattern involves the
strokes to be terminated
2. Build up the legs in different directions. or downward, a thick line is produced. "boxes" moving sideways
of the letter with two in steps. This works best on
complementary upright curved strokes and requires
strokes on either side careful planning.
of the core diamond Interlocking loops
strokes. As a general A interlocking
series of
rule, the legs should but unjoined loops can
have more weight be adapted at a
than the feet. terminal stroke or
provide an infill. The semiciratlar loops interlock
without actually towching

The lines o;f the seri;f Mirror images

echo those of the feet This patterning is loosely based
on a decorated descender from the
16th-century "Alphabet" of Mary
of Burgundy. The two halves of
3. Keeping a the ornamentation suggest a
constant pen angle, mirror image. This decoration
build up the feet. would work equally well from a
Changes of line top line of an ascender. 1. Begin by folding a sheet of
direction can now lightweight layout paper in haif- the
be introduced. fold will represent the center line of
the image. Fold the paper again at a
right angle to the original fold - this
will represent the arm. Unfold the
Changes of line Small terminal loops should be drawt paper and work out the sequence,
direction haue complete; this is easier than trying loops, and interlaces of half the pattem.
been introduced to construct halJ a loop
Finish the
Cadel by
terminating the
strol<es with
loops and
hairlines

The balance of thkk and thin 2. Using the right angle fold as a
strokesin the left arm will be center line, work out the strokes for
fhe exact reuerse o;[ those in the arm.'When this is complete, fold
the right arm the paper over the center line and
repeat the pattern from the see-
4. Now add the crossbar, breaking the through image. Any flaws in the
strokes as they cross the lines of the legs. design will become immediately
Finally, add the decorative loops and flourishes. obvious when the pattem is reversed.

83
I r,quaN LH u uax tsr Scnrrs

The right ha{oJthe

Rotunda .
o has a smoother
semicircular
sweep than
the leJt
-flra Gorntc INFLUENCE on western European scripts between (pp. 86 87)

I the tenth and 13th centuries was largely resisted in one

major country - Italy. The clarity of classical inscriptions, still
evident throughout the land, the continued use of a wide,
rounded hand called the Beneventan, and the retention of the
Caroline Minuscule, were all factors in the emergence of RoruNtlA ,,
The rourrdnes.
a formal script that differed from its Gothic contemporaries of the o is the key to
in its round, open aspect. It was known as Rotunda. Rotunda and is reflected
in all the borved letters.

By rrur 12rru :ENTURr, the prestige

Rotunda script had developed into
an extremely formal and upright
version of the Caroline Minuscule
(pp. j8-39), with slightly shorter
ascenders and descenders than
its parent script. The hand
also embodied elements of the
Beneventan, most notably in
the rounded strokes on many
Ietters. In contrast, straight strokes
were square-cut and rigidly upright.
A legible hand
In general, the Rotunda was bolder
than the Caroline Minuscule, but
the rounded strokes and modest
ascenders and descenders created
a clear, legiblescript that was used
for handwritten work long after
the introduction of printing. The
simplicity of the letterforms made
the script equally popular as a model
for typefaces, thriving in that form
until as late as the 18th centurv.
The many curved strokes, such as this
on the letter o, helped continue the
Italian tradition oJ open, rounded scripts

The square baselineJoot oJ the letter f is a

distinctive characteristic of the Rotunda

Boor op HouRs
This small Book of Hours, produced in
Bruges in about 1480, shows the evenness and
regularity of the Rotunda. The script differs
from that used for the Verona Antiphoner
(opposite) in one significant respect - the
npturned feet of the minims. Here, they are a
continuation of the minim strokes, which results
in slightly more cursive letters than was usual.

84
 Roruxo,s

Large-scale letters
As a manuscript hand, the Rotunda was
written in a full range of sizes, from very
small to very large, and was the chosen
script for some of the largest known
manuscript books in the world.
When written on a large scale, the
#, letters can have a rigid formality
and the hairline strokes often seem
disproportionately light.
Rotunda Capitals
Accompanying capitals are written
with the same pen as the minuscules
(pp. SS-59). A double stroke can be used
for the stem, with a clear gutter between
strokes. In some historical instances, the
Rotunda Capital developed into a
Versal. In others, Gothic or Lombardic
Versals were used with Rotunda
text script.
A common feature of all Rotunda
letters, both minuscule and capital,
is the sharpness of the cut of the nib,
which gives clear, precise strokes and
fine hairlines. In larger versions,
the pen should be clearly lifted after
the completion of each stroke, while
in smaller versions, many strokes can
be drawn'in one continuous movement.

a nuf These large-scale Rotunda letten lack any

cursiveJeatures: .note the angulafity with
which the ascenden and straight minim
strokes have been drawn

i i Compare the unusual brokenJorms of

| ,h. ,rrrA., on c,tpitols.\.
('. ond L. rr irh
] the more common-fornt Qp. 88 897

TnE VEnoNa ANTtI,ttoNEIl

ry &lo*[ $ry*C1a* fure sffiB

This Antiphoner (book of chants and anthems) was
written in about 1500 for the monasteries of SS Nazro Ernph{qheo$sf
-
and Calio in Verona, ltaly. This rype of book was often
written in a large format to enable several choristers to obi* fln Sofoin futnrr$baf+De loca *zcott?t
read it at the same time. The l\otunda letters have been
drawn with considerable precision, with idiosyncrasies
huc.$-qd frt enrphfrhesf+Sp # sfiIpbft_beq
arising only in the unusual broken form of the capitals. tftsgiece€ nrelioiqris lntle*ffib intilo e[ tffi
This CarolineJorm oJdJeatures / iierTtlsp hfrc flcy*Ip-cedebfifivrie { grcc{Psr
/
an upright stem and curved bowl
iei rtr elio l A ftsrfr o cd ucqg &rirtte rf tE ! er tJlgg
RoruNoR AS A TYPEFACE iedderehp-o{ten rfi. ffin{{lh j e fi.reh fcr{{lfb
The type used in this dictionary was possibly from the
founts of the Venice-based German printer Erhard I f uctu oTitflt r{f em ph f tbeqrlcg rr p o !flgry E
CoO efareeffiIpbt't*{n pt1ofit Se e-trtpbfqfltr
Ratdolt (pp. 9U91), who had punches cut for a
Rotunda type in 1486. This detail shows two different
forrns of d: the uncial form and the upright Caroline " ilfis nsleillpbirbeoi{sr ptiufra}s {[lequf, ffa
form - both can be seen in the middle of the sixth line.

85
 Iruuattt QH u u.tx t sr ScRrprs

Rotunda
f)oruNoA
I \both
rs AN upright, open letter, which works well on
large and small scale. The characteristic straight stem
a
trl,*,,rr*re; @W
strokes, such as those on letters b,f, and h, are constructed with
the pen held at about 30o. The square foot is then added in one
of two ways. The simplest method is to use the corner of the nib

m'
to outline the foot, before filling it in wirh ink. Alternatively,

[
"dual ductus"
,/+r,h. pen from 30o technique can be used, which involves turning
to the horizontal in one short movement.
rif'#lii,fu
\ 2
nlthou$l,h: latter may seem more complex, it is probably
\ preferable when drawing large Rotunda ietters.
/
A split ascender can
be used instead of the

Jlat-headed uaiety '

On large-scale
c e#
Rotunda letters,
the curued stroke
is drawn separately Alternatiuely, the

&
from the straight d canfeature an
stroke upright steru 1

If the upight stroke begins

at j0", turn the pen to the

Complete the sweep to the

right in a single stroke
horizontal to create a-flatfoot

e tu
M
Sweeping strokes

p
On letters in which the stem
stroke ends in a right sweep,
such as I (aboue), the sweep is
Twist the pen
usually completed in a single

f*G'"
to the uertical
stroke. On larger letters, two
separate strokes are used ;for the crossbar
(see &, l, and t, rigltt).
of the f

I
I
Key letter 2
The o is the key letter of the ____f
I

Rotunda. The bowls of b, d, g, p,

I

and 4 closely follow its shape, ,rd itt

open aspect is also echoed in the r
and e. The first stroke is only slightly
curved, closely following a vertical
before sweeping vigorously to the
right. The second stroke is much
more semicircular than the first.
Theflat-headed The second
ascender oJ the h stroke of the

m 2
can be replaced by hcanbe
a split ascender extended and

ffi1, the third

stroke omitled
Terminating flicks 3
As an alternative to the sweeping
stroke, letters m, n, and u can
terminate with a flick. These are
+o 3

L
severe and rather mechanical; the
stroke is simply execured with a pen
angle of 30o and without any
directional turn of the pen.
r
86
 RoruNo.s

The Jlat-headed
ascender of thek
,P
,# Twist the pen

fuf
3 to the vertical
Alternative
can be replaced by
a split ascender
ffir, i:r!,i;ti crossbar to complete the
crossbar of the t
ffil l/ 2
ffi rhird otnitted
\_a
4 The second leg of the
2

UIE $
u can f;nish with a llick -._-1

The flat-headed ascender of the I

iL ru
\
2
can be replaced by a split ascender

___f
6
The finalfoot of the
foot
.-. _ m canfinish with aflick

v $;
Alternative
foot
u j
w'
1

tp
The secondfoot

$; ffi
oJ the n could

4 alternatiuely t^i ;
Y \
terminate
with aJlick w
\

t
3
Alternative 5
foot
2 1 5
' Drag the ink witlt
ffi the corner oJ the nib to

& ffir The second stroke of

the o is more semi-
fu
y'//{
4
make the tail of rhe x

circular than thefirst

Alternatiuely,
twktfrom the
diagonal to the
horizontal for
the serif of the p
T
2

:&,- W 7
n 3

Any two letters with

^0, The use of the

half r is comfixon
opposing bows
can be conioined

Full r Half r
,{r in Rotunda text

Conjoined Conjoined E ApartJrom conjoined

letters, Rotunda letteforms
Each stroke oJ the s begins or dande
ends on the central haiiline are clearly separated

Sequence of
Rotunda
letters

87

I
 Iaudx &t-H uuatasr Scnrcrs
1
----------)

Rotunda Cupitals
-l-nt srRUCruRr or the Rotunda capital is less crearly defined
I th"r, the minuscule (pp. s6-s7). noth ri.rgle and double stem
capitals can be used; historically, they were often combined with
Lombardic capitals (pp. 6a-65). The double stem capitals shovr.n
T 1

-.--' Vertical

here have been taken from a number of sources and should be

regardld only as gord. for individual interpretations. As with the
Rotydda minuscules, a "double ductus" applies, with all curved
strpkes and some upnght strokes drawn with the pen at 30o, and
1 haiilines
be added
through the
counter
the B
can

o_i

th\ remaining strokes drawn with the pen at the horizontal.

Sweeping curued strokes help

establish a rhythm

The pen k held at j0"for the

curued strokes of the Rotunda
Capital

A single diamond
stroke reduces the
volume of space
in the counter , Diagonal hairlines can be
added to the letterD (left)

Counters
The round, open nature of the Rotunda 5
Capital tends to produce generous
counters. The expanse of white space
can be broken by the addition of spurs,
diamonds, double hairlines, or a
The stem ot'
combination of these elements.
the F can
alternatiuely be
drawn with a

double stroke
Square feet
If the pen is at 30o at the top of the
stem, the angle should be maintained
for the whole stroke, finishing at the

tuffi
baseline. To create the square foot,
use the corner of the nib to trace
along the baseline and up to join the
right side of the stem. Fill in this
triangle of white space with ink.

The feet are outlined

andfilled in with the
corner of the nib /, ,/'
#t,
Alternative forrn of M

// lIi}, #
.-#,11'ifrn"""1#"ffi3il1:;

nter has
uble
been
hairline.
The gap between the two
ffir r. V.l j EIrl
\r l_ *jll
,rr* ,*okrrl
should be about half a pen width I
I

Hackles can be added

to thefirst stem of the I

88
 Roruxo.t. C,sPtruts
1>
r flll 't''

l,%n & 1
_--.---,
Turn the pen
from the

w
horizontal to
30" to draw
the final stroke

sff
of theU

A hairtine stroke
be added to the
can
ight ffi/
ffil'l I Turn the Pen
of the stem of thitfu from
j0" to the
1-@ \-----} horizontal for
2 the central stroke

p'
oftheM

^+t
$,
w 2
ilI0 7
,&'
2
--t-t

Turn the
-H
pen
to the
from
:[.':r,:';':;'3
g' rt
hoizontal to
'!i,'i',li'^ *,,rr,
1 draw thefirst
stroke

w
of the N 21
#
The
the
O and
Q haue
the same basic wmw
-ry%F
M* /x
To

Q,
form

to the O
the
add a tail q
form

5Y w
A @,
Wil
hairline
f/
stroke can be
added to the
%
r)ffi
1
ight of the
stem ol the P /ff
/ g"-"
,/ "r
"

1 4 A
""-'hairline
*\- stroke run be
Internal decoration can take
theJorm of hairline cross

m:!ih'i:K
ffi'x
strokes and diamonds

Irci Altetnative forrns of O

2

,@ "'"dlF
Any Rotunda CaPital can be

tr+1 '&' kiq), Single stem

Rotunda
drawn with a single rather than
a double stem; this Plainerform
is best for use in text with

N ,
Capital R minuscules (PP. 86-87 )
 I rau,tt't L H u uax ts r ScRrprs

Humanist Minuscule
T". Huuaxrsr MwusculE (Littera Antiqua) and the Roman
I Imperial Capital (pp. 108-109) are the two historical scripts
most influential in our modern society. Between them, th"y give
us the basic constructions of our capital and lowercase letteis,
both in handwritten and typewritten form. In the Humanist HuuaNrsl MrNuscurE u
Minuscule, the darker overtones of the Gothic scripts gave way The serlfs have All Humanist Minuscule
been drawn with letters have an upright aspect
to the lighter style of the the pen held at 30" with clearly defined strokes.
Renaissance letter. It woul{-
be difficult to eiuisa.-gee/
script better suited to the
intellectual ideals of the age.
fo*o** nu n*iu,*{."-a*s rla{: ilr}r#s'$"a{br nr**$ffiu
r-a
Trun Huu,qNtsr Minuscule was {j Lq i r.r F} { {-{. ,i" f} nlg $ t? i-.,F ru g{,}r' .li, i;,:"t. rg{-- i
essentially a rediscovery of the i"i
i,,
l.ir { { E';i i,l. 1 ri- i;I -i ; t
;::r,,"c ii;t. i,i-i {il : i, ii r-i :i ii i. i t r:]i-
Caroline MinuscuL (pp. 3S-39). :1"

As a clear, unambiguous hand, free

from affectation, the Caroline was ii i l

considered by 14th-century scholars, |,J i.l'-;:

:!r , i ; ir;, |Iitii.
:-i iir:
including the Italian poet Petrarch,
to be in harmony with the ideals
of the Renaissance.
Although the Humanist Minuscule
was to have a profound and formative
#e?1{"rr"a *f.-fu ****,ffi,
influence on modern Latin-based
writing, acceptance of it was initially :.I i:r r :l i.' :.-i i- t t.

slow. The widespread popularity of

l.:'.::.i .' .: i : . .,i , i-: l*i:,f.-l f { ;,^ i
the script came only after manuscript tj
,]t
books were superseded by printed It; x 1a: i q i. r ti i,'{ i,i i:l :: ;i J i'nl i i.{::il i'},1li lai,-;il
works, and it was adapted as a f-rt a-'lst r rl r dl"y-
model for text typefaces, notably by
Nicholas Jenson-of Venice after 1+70
*u{uu"ffi,*
(pp. 38-39). lt gradually replaced i.: ;lr'.t.i gi i.i,.jx il.i til,; ,iam
the Rotunda in Italy (pp. Sa-55) and
,.r Ilu.'i:, lf ,i,i'$i'f *, it', 'i,,;=r'l ii;{ rittt?
the Gothic scripts of Britain and
southern Europe as the principal
model for typefaces.

This Book of Hours *r, #;;;?jflru::

in about 1500 for Giovanni II Bentivoglio.
Arguably, the sumptuous decoration and
bright colors of the Versals detract from the
digniry of the text scripr itself. The flat seri6
at the heads of the ascenders are the natural
product of a horizontally held p"n (pp, 92-93).

90

I
 Huuaxtsr Mmuscurc

Nore rhe slupulous i i' i',

*ith *hich thrre i i i''ir:::'i:r:'+ir.i:';rtrii
consistency
i, , .i1. iair -?.r il,rri
small ampersands have been
drawn throughout the text Ir,lE}i*i- : i*1{i rir,! l eit ,f{,+i]i{{ri. {:din} Jriti.i!:al
rrlgrt*frlt{lir:.f+* : -.r+ furl+ i'i+ ttfue lv:iir f ii
r.. i:$l i}fi:; ed;a"isr*i,**rr , ,:? i*a r;,,:r,:l;,., i , :
rw,r}:i*c*rieuxr,
It:t*S +:,a;r*Xr,:r***,**s :::::"f':''l'
ijr.L"lr,rlr:*sq1"ilbilr , ;*;**,*i;ffiru{J*r*:r*.i:
'ii*n
*X,*or*,*,**;O;_r;_,_,.il;1il;;
t:r {{i{r+** er+*s;, Ixx*.irtei' il{r;.rdr+r++{r{r, ii: . ;1r*.o
+.rr*;"1*,r**rd{ir+ ;tf.€:e++t{r**qr:i.q,:rr.i.,."-".--T,1,Y:Y :t*d-Ol{**:*
The book hasbeen i l,
t.-.-;,,^^^^..^tt..* i I lt'.,,t$;g'l *-,,-r {r --...-.i :}irrs".1r!!i{rt!{,s(r{n}i*}nsr*d{.r!rr!rr

;ig*,frffiffi#il. - .i ,.
f tt. ..[*,.*",*u,,,u*";;;;;:ilr;:#;':-
*f+ ,?d d{{Lf fir dl(,s {rr r.}}l *lflr,"f r
I re:t*{i'n:pii*
!r :Jt{.irilJtld{qJ{qiu:l}!5
}\ -
qf:llrl}tii*fq i}
ere""drsv*i}'rtri**trl;,
,**{,,*; xr**-;'*,,*,"-** nr-r**ll. r ,, "o 'rl:ft#a{:*r**ft+'lrt{ir**-r*lef*s+trr**t]iF:,,:

rhe versats atebased on pi$ii.$ffi

f;.}'q# X3{\1i-fu"c*ma*fi*+*1{i+E'#ry
flu** .infii$, , *n+l{: gsxq6.* {*y,,e,*r tluri
i -,;];;-ilffii,]*ffi1ff:ffi-
te"erJorms(pp ss
", i
;x,L;d;,;::,;il:,:ffi
fx,;f,ffiffitx'f:;ii"i.f
Sr paur,s E'isrLE ;:f;;l#;n$#xi*.:: ;; u *h,3:jlljf$g;#r
, r*v+r*r*fi+4{r {f,nErfl;{{i"ft:inidii i{:Ij

,his'lex'lcombines ffi+
written in about 150d :j;flffY:;#4-,,"J
.',* lt ilffi1ffi:#*::ffi:;f;:#if--Yffi
Ti

Italic and Humanist

Minusculet""a"o
.ffiffi *'''-
;il;;.;. $i,{..fftffi:!;;ipi#+i#;l
' #:mrn*i-lggxffi
-1$I1**ffi
dramatic effect. Desp
ffi iHilil ;;;;;1g
1;;=;;';

til
*+'t'*rr*:q*+x**ftnt*r'rt**tr**rp*n'ru+r'i t i,,****u+*e,{e*- #',.$}-*-**;
here approxi-rt"ty $ffi$f}ri$i
same size as they are
written, each character
remains distinct and
clear\ legibie. At a
gLance, the manuscript
may be mistaken for a
printed book.

In this morgin annotation,

,{ ,' *,.r
*,:; !:,:!:. I *.' *f' B'. *{rr , *
'_'
'0, fl u
l:'i#iilRIrING A smail tetter
d.
.i,
,c,F r",r,.,
it;rt.6 *'trdlrrrr {}lra";.*ot- The scripr developed Like the Caroline Minuscule, t}re

:1",:.1 .t..a.'i,.tr r'-{.r; }"t;ffili['$'ji HumanistMinusculewasaneleganr

-pRr*rrDrlxr
Hrteentn century Humanisr Minuscule. hand tlat worked most successfully
t"=-T:
.

,",*#ft:Ji'
-l1rfr,;-:*
-"iit"aYi:1-::'1v
o.' J"'
';i'-^--
l ,r'ctri4t
^- glF -.r'
^ri-c rii'. This annotation
,'r:':::::jti::#,.
by

**:,,:.Hi;r:y :I,}}:l;ll:[:l;:1"jff,:i:'j*.
';; ;;;;)'"""unued,o
on
^- a" small Tr^i. i-
"^.1- This
"-.11 scale. ^,;r^-+:-
is evident in

*;#*+i.X[,33r +';;;i'l:;;[ ;'Jili,i1trt#*,,

which lor larse'scale book work'
degtee to
be used

#*tlmlil fpi';iilrl'.''l{ t\
orst.paulsEpisrre al^r, ,', -l;*: m:i'*:,' versaEandcapitats
very cleer. hi' hanJ. Versals, so popular with Gothic
::1*5'l -odel ao.
Theumeserif - c.tt
(arore) are
4. .:ll.,,} scribes, were also used with Ge
-r$ rh$e.ttati.tatuswqe HumanistMinuscute,butthesewere
fJ?::i:H:I',T,. t
1lrn,ii.
;i*",,;i5,-^ '. i:::.'!:2tiir!,""tif increasi,gty modeted on Roman
lorms.\py.
c^r.!v,r-..,,4rr.r,r,.{r.
^
r! ,,.!ry, rrv, f caprtars.tor 108-109). The use or
, ex eis gug3 nrrniftft. appa;ffi;.i;j;',1"L; I
sentence openings was

,r,"ui"riigr''"idi.[;.,q*;6r#; c\ri1h i:]#i:H::.lJ;,*'J:lJ#r.

uaqueqlanilffiffifshunror8h addloco *1e$l*, weredrawnwiththesameductusas
^1i,

;akeradocondngir.
..Verqmliquidemh.gcitf ., ffii":J::r.J"ltlkl"jn.-l:
91
Ir,uux LH u uat't t sr ScRrprs

Humanist Minuscule
rrtue HuueNtsr Mwuscult is a direct descendent of the
I Cu.oli.re Minuscul. (pp. 4011).Letters are clearly defined, The wedge serf of the
reL; \_> *
{usinga "slanred" pen,
separate, and open; very close ifl form to modern letters,
particularly those used as typefaces. There is no exaggeration ,#'l:,!::'0,!,!,"1,i"!'
of ascenders and descenders in the script and interlinear spacing
is clear and regular. Humanist Minuscule can be written with
square-cut "slanted" or an oblique-cut "straighC'p".. The letters
shown here have been written with a "straight" pen. In both,
cases, the letters are upright and usually small in scale, with\
a

br: 'ffi1 m
-2-

a minim height of about five pen widths. l

/- I
2

C'
/
ttSlanted"-,ben
The "slanldd" pen
Humanist Minuscule
is based on the early
hand ofPoggio and
relates quite closely to
the Caroline Minuscule.
It is written with a pen
angle of30-40o. The
a is a double-story
letter; this distinguishes
it from the Italic a,
which is a single-story
letter (y;p. 96-9n.
d':'r*ffi# If using a "slanted" pen,
the bowl of the d will
have a diagonal axis

tr&)ffi
"Straight" pen
During the latter part
of the 15th century, C ffi lr- ffi--r*
q!.-%*

r
there was an increasing Like the Rotunda
tendency to write the f, the Humankt
Humanist Minuscule Minuscule f does
with a "straight" pen. not have a tail
The pen angle for this
is shallow (5-15")
and a greater contrast
between thick and thin
strokes can be produced.
If using a
"slanted"
pen, the bowl

jl
Wedge serif drawn
in two strokes Foot drawn with Foot drawn with of the g will
a "straight" pen
, a "slanted" pen have a
diagonal axis

I
The wedge serif of the
h can be replaced by
aflat serif
Theh

qw
can
Serif types Minim feet terminate with
The script features fwo fypes of serifs:
wedge-shaped and flat. The wedge
serifis created either in a single
stroke or in two separate strokes
When using a "slanted" pen, the
tendency is to create a turned foot,
produced by terminating the minim
stroke with a flick to the right. 3
[1
J
a twrned foot

(aboue). The flat serif is created with
a single horizontal stroke. When
using a "straight" pen, the flat serif
can also be used to terminate upright
minims and descenders (see letters
f, h, k, flx, fr, p, q, r, opposite).
When using a "straight" pen, this
flicking movement is more difficult.
Instead, use the flat serif, or finish the
stroke with a slight movement to the
right along the baseline and then add
a separate serifto the left.

92
 Huuaxtsr MtxuscuLr,

6,I
&ffi
*
_ffi The top of the t should

W:;ii';ffi ffi17
ffil-
w$s I
ree[-
2ffi
-ffi
tffi
W
riseonlyslightlyabove
theheadline

The wedge serf of Pull the tail of the 1 along

thel can be replaced
the baseline, or terminate
by a Jlat serif rhc stroke tuith a_flat seriJ

ffi,ee
ffi
2

If using a "slanted"
pen, the o will have

""
w%w 1
-------)
35
---f

ffil,'*u'
1 3
If usinga "slanted" ------)
pen, the bowl of
2 the p will haue
a diagonal axis

The basic;form of the y

is the same as the u,
with the fourth stroke
extendedinto atail
/ ry
@/w
,w/
ffi/# @
ffi/
ffit W^w
-, *
If using a "slanted" pen,
Humanist Minuscule letters drawn with a
the bowl of the q will.have
"slanted" pen can leanforward slightly; in
a diagonal axk
thk form the a, f, and g dffir from the ltalic

2
$p.9a-95) in that they are unlinked

druD
ff
Thefirst stroke
of the r can
ffi
terminate with
^&* a turned foot
2 'oSlanted"
MD letters

% The tail of the g diferentiates the

letterfrom its ltalic counterpdrt

'*,*P (pp. e6-e7)

93
I rAU,sN {H u u.tx rs r ScRrprs

Italic
Iralrc ,,r
FoRM, Italic script (Chancery Cursive, Cancellarcsca
ITS BASIC The Italic a,
TN with its fully
LCorsiva, Littera di Brevi) is a cursive offspring of the Humanist forrned born l,
Minuscule (pp. 90-91). Over time, it became a distinctive is the earliest
ancestor of
hand in its own right, spawning, in turn, the copperplate our rnodern
lowercase
(pp. 102-103).The script was invented in 1+20 by Niccolo letter a.

Niccoli, oD Italian scholar who found the Humanist Minuscule

too slow to execute. By 1++0, his ne\ L less labor-intensive Letters generally
join at the midwal
script had been adopted as the oflicial hand of the Papal Chancery. point between the
baseline and the
headline

Trun FouR BASIC characteristics

of Italic that were established by
Niccoli tend to occur naturally when
the Humanist Minuscule is written
rapidly and with the minimum
number of pen lifts: there is a
tendency for the hand to lean to
the right; circles become more oval;
many letters can be written in a single
stroke; and letters are joined to each
other with a connecting stroke.
Changing the a
The character altered most
significantly by Niccoli was the c,
which he transformed from a tall
two-story letter (p. 92) into a single-
story letter of minim height (above
right). His g also tended to follow this
new form, resembling an c with a tail.
The terminals of Italic ascenders and
descenders were drawn in one of two
forms: the formata (semiformal), in
which th"y were horizontal or wedge-
shaped and left-facing, or the corsiva,
in which they were rounded and
right-faci"g (pp. 9 6-97) .

'l ;'
i , i iiii.r:, ,
rhis page from a *ffffi?J,,ffffiil,? . I :!li: i '. r
I rr
: i
Francesco Moro was penned in about 1560-70
I

and consists mainly of alphabets and texrs in

different hands. At the rop, in gold, are fwo lines
of Cadels (pp. 8U81). Beneath the blue border
are the Italics, fully separated and generously
spaced. The minuscule hand is a fonnata,
identifiable by the wedge-shaped ascender serifi.
Four lines of Textura Quadrata (pp. 50-51)
follow and, below the green border, there are
several lines of Humanist Minuscule (pp. 90-91).

91
 IrtLtc

Fv F-] *,/5 { id qdAk-r-cl A ;".: r"i A {-" i'

tt*7*i ffi r* c U't*"'gt i l t't{-
fd" irurr'r* r?tr''l'4{v* *e;r'i'r'r}tr
u
t-r fih6+r- PuJ *
rl'*.*. tr*.'*{* *#'J*, ir,6{qruiy**rir*i F{r.'rrrrrr r$$
.f-i r***.j dt cd*i,
- t I l, J llr I
Itimtt,**tn itt I,tb,-u {'r*,r,iJ o b,:li, f'r{}* n' art ' *nr' "i{i'"";"
lr*' J*,rrun;nf{r -rJ" 1i rrtn*r tu f-J ffi, *o4{o lrqrn,tri H rt
'
(-1'ti ft i ni '
rrg,
lrrt*{
;r*t, o.i *, *,, $, {{ l,t r. pr.t c,:tttn,,to, {1r, t'or:t tJ;
"1r
m*lm ceJrnl'] ! '* ;tie'
{lJ rt,I, tqlr/']tl't /I f'*
rt if;t};'h{',n
,r."t'
"&n)
sz^.Rrarr,a
I ,nts fine Italic script was written by Ambrosius
The long ascenders and descenderc horrl Each letter is
Theodosius Maciobius in 1465.
prrrrnrid a problemJor the *hrrr\ clearly defined, reminiscent both of the Humanist
e,
scribe

ey,t o,h in ih, intu,t i,, or

rffil: :r:rey: ; ;5;, filO.:h;i'lX r*l'j;:
th sP ac

In this ltalic tefi, the calligrapher has restrained cdmpared with those by Moro
(opposite) '

included bothJormata and corsiva

ascenders; rhis I is the corsiva type

PRTNUNG TYPE CATALOGUE The influence oJ tyPe

This design from 1990 is bY the The changing demands brought about
Norwegian calligrapher Christopher
Haanes. He has achieved harmonY
by the developing printing industry of
benveen the capitals and minuscules the 15th century had an imPortant
B=edu.irg the size of the caPitals influence on the Italic script. In 1501,
to just above minim height.
the Venetian printer Aldus Manutius
commissioned goldsmith Francesco
Griffo to design a small Italic tyP"
:

The relative crudity oJ Mortis's (pp. 90-91) in which most of the

capital letters is ProbablY due
to his use oJ a Pointed Pen nib
rather than the mote suitable
broad-edged nib
Although clearlY an ltalic
script, Motris's letters are
noticeably upright comPared
with a classic kalic such as
Francesco Moro' s (oPPosite)
-Wrruau Mon-RIs
Although Edward
Johnston is generallY
regarded as the father of
modern calligraPhY
@p. a2-a), William
Morris had been
exploring the methods
of medieval scribes two
decades before him. This
illuminated work of 1874
is an attempt to realize
the vision of the Arts and
Crafts movement bY
achieving communion
between craftsman and
tool Q;p. 42-4j).But
since a pointed nib rather
than a broad-edged Pen
has been used to draw
the capitals, the attemPt
is only partially successful.
,l,rr','tt' .lr'(Lti ri,
,ri,l yr,,,'./r,,t',' rr'lrlrr
l,r',,{rl,J'-,1r,, ',' [."""""" ''t - {:rr"r'r
jlr(i III/Ilf r'1 lr'l'rr{r r,rl.ii'1rlr' t'0""'{""'
characters were clearly separated.
From that point, calligraphers began
to follow the examPle of tYPe bY
separating their penned letters. This
led to of some of the Italic's
a loss
cursive quality and the script quickly
reached its full maturity as a carefully
crafted text hand. But bY the 1550s,
the complaint from scribes was that it
had become too slow to write. From
then, its decline was rapid, eventually
being used only for text in parenthesis
and for annotation.
Johnston's o
For the modern calligrapher, Italic
'
script remains a constant source
11lr;'rtrr- of inspiration. However, much new
'
Italic can be traced back not to the
15th century but to the influence of
the early 2Oth-century calligrapher
Edward Johnston. The scriPt was
subtly modified by his introduction
of two pulled strokes for the o and
related letters, in place of the
original single stroke (PP. a2al '

95
 I r,tuatt LH u u,sN tsr Scarrs

Italic The Italic a is

always a single-
-1rrn Irnuc HAND is written with a square-cut "slanted" pen, held :l?ry tlttet
I at an angle of between 35 and 45o. Letters should be written
with the minimum number of pen lifts - most can be written with
a single stroke. The two traditional examples shown here are
formata and corsiva. Formata letters are distinguished by the wedge
serif to the left of the stem, corsiva by the swashes to the right of
the stem. Ideally, the two different types should not be mixed. The
o is the key letter of the script; it establishes the basic ductus of Formata
the hand, the curve of other letters, and the letter width (below).

Joining strokes
'Where Alternatiuely, the top cwrue of the c
strokes spring
Connecting can be drawn as a separate stroke
from the stem of a Italic letters hdue a strokes should
letter, such as on h, m,
forward lean of abottt begin about two
and n, the stroke should
10 or 15o pen widths short
begin about two pen
oJ the headline
widths below the
headline. The bottorn
curwe of the bowl of I*t
the d, g, and 4 meets I

the stem stroke about T1

trvo widths above the

*T, I
Forunata Corsiva
baseline. A11 connecting
strokes follow these forrn of d forrn of d
basic rules. :r
The top loop
of the e can be A tongue can be
Ascenders and descenders added when the e is
This wedge drawn as a
can be the same as minim at the end of a word
serif, drawn separate stroke
heighr or slighily shorter
in two strokes.
is rontmon in This serif
modern work can also be
This corsiua serlf
hds been. drawn

';;;,''!j Without th,

uossbar, thc
becomes tlt,
f
long;form oi,
The clubbed

fll-'l/
corsiva serif
creates bold
ascenders
Alternatiuell,,
the descender
Serifs
of the g can
Serifs can be wedge*shaped and left-facing (formata) or
terminate witlt
right-facing (corsiva). On letters b, d, h, k, and / in the
Step-by-step a swasli
o alphabet (ight),both fonnata and corsiva rypes are shown.
Corsiva (above lefti
forrn of h

Alternatiuely, the
seto:id fo-ot oftte
2 h can terminatc
with a_flick
(aboyglq{,

1. To create the o in 2. Maintaining the 3. Push the pen

a single stroke, use an
angle of 40o. Beginjust
below the headline and
push the pen upward
to the headline, before
curving down to the left.
40o pen angle, curve
the stroke downward
toward the baseline,
before moving along the
baseline and beginning
to culve upward.
toward the headiine in
an arc, meeting the top
curve just below the
headiine. Alternatively,
draw the ietter in two
strokes (opposite).

96
 b,tLtc

Forrnata Corsiva
form forrn of k
ofk

Forrnata Corsiva
form of I forrn of I

The legs of the m can be with a wedge serif

drawn as sepdrate strokes

/;;,ffiii
begin, like the u,
with a wedge serif

Alternatiuely, the o can be drawn

in a single srroke (opposite)

3 The second stroke of the Alternatiu el,y, ti;; y^;;*7,

p can be extended into constructed
from the basic
the stem and the third
form of u, with the addition
o;f a descender

w Conjoined letters do
Thefirst and third
strokes of the z can be
replaced by a single stroke
from right to leJt

not appear in Italic

script and ligatures
are limited to the
letters s and t Italic ampersands can be
decorate d with Jlourishes

S-r ligature Arnpersand

97
 Irlu,tt't &cH uu,qM sr S cntpr s

Humanist & Italic Cupitals

uttlnNlsr CnpttRLS closely modeled on Roman Imperial
ff ARE
T' lCapitals (pp. 110-119) and can be used with the Caroline
Minuscule (pp. a0a1) and Foundational Hand (pp. a45), as
well as with Humanist Minuscules (pp. 92-93). A pen angle of
30o is most likely to produce letters with a similar stroke wergk
to the stone-cut Roman originals. Italic Capitals are based on
the Humanist letterforms but have a distinctive forward lean.
There are various possible serif formations (below), and any
of these can be used on either type of capital.
Twist the pen to
the uertical to

Humanist and Italic

Capitak should neuer
exceed the equiualent
oJ tuto minims in height
tu draw the serif oJ
the C (see

for alternative
methods)
left

Italic Capitals lean to the

ight at the same angle as
th e m i n u s cul e s (pp/9C-W l,
Pen nibs \
The same pen nib should be used for capitals as is used
for the minuscules that they accompany. The serifi
can be drawn with the pen at a slightly shallower
angle than that used for the main stem strokes.

2
3

-----f
-
ffiHtr #f
ffi -----+ ffi Ir
ffi,
ffiilt
ffi-----)
ry!ry

ffi
ffiffi
ffit
ffit

@t-
ffit ffi

- .tr>
----+
Twist the pen to
the uertical to
Arm serifs Alternative serifs draw the top serif

IJ t
Draw the arms of E and F and the Altematively, the top left serif can of the G (see left
top curves of C, G, and S in a single simply be the beginning of the stem 4 ---+ for akernatiue
stroke and, if desired, build up the stroke and the right serif can be methods)
two serift with the corner of the nib. created with a slight flick to the left. ,

25
--f --f

3 j
---f
Basic foot serif Bracketed serif Inner fillet
Create the basic foot serif Alternatively, finish the A third option is to draw The letter J can drop
by extending the stem stem stroke with a sweep the basic foot seif (left) below the baseline
to the left and finishing to the right and add the and add the inner fillet
with a baseline stroke. left serif separately. with a short curve.

98
 H u u,s,Nt sr B-lr,utc CdPnats

r
Alternative
arm
ffir
ffi8 l1
ffit
ffit
ffit
ffit
w\+
The top arm of
theK can be
drawn with a
straight stroke
7>

2 \
3 ----) -:+,
w
----+

ffi
ffi
ffi
&re
-=
Thefirst diagonal
The second
of theY can be a
stroke of the
straight stroke
M can be
*raight

24
--f
rn"niri
* The third and third

il
stroke of the strokes of
N can be theW can
straiglt be straight

---_>
2

ww 4
The first
stroke of
diagonal
theY
can be straight

Italic Capitals should be

slightly shorter than the
ascender height of the
minuscule

Thefirst altemativeE shows bracketed serfs

Twkt the pen to the at the top and bottom of the leuer, and the

% uertical to draw the

serif of the S (see
opposite/or
qlq9-r1g11v,_qmellp_f, s)"-

---------)
4 4
second shows a straight stem and straight arms

Two alternative
forms of E

-)
Ir,qttA,^t &lH uueN t sr S catpr s

Italic Swash Cupitals

Cnpnm rs n flamboyant letter that traditionally served
SwnsH -,'),
6 3
I L a similar function in Italic text to that of the colored Versal

ffi,
---*
2

in Gothic text (pp. 58-59).lt should never be used to write --*-/;ff-@ d- ],r

a complete word, but can be combined with standard Italic Capitals ,ilffi'(d
(pp. 98-99). Th. Swash Capital's characteristic showiness is created
/ffi # w/
by the extension of stem strokes above or below the capital line and
the extension of bowls and horizontal strokes to the left of the stem.
vff
,W/ /affi?
3
These extended strokes terminate with a swash or, instead, can
be looped like Copperplate Capitals (pp. 106-107).
The C is

ffi
drautn in
The stem has been
two separate
extended aboue the bowl of
rurued strokes
the letter to Jorm a swash

When a swash is added

both to the top and the
left oJ the stem, the letter Balance the
gains a particularly 3 bp su,aslt
Jlamboyant appearance o;f theD
ouer the
suteep oJ
the arc

The swash to the left of the stem

is a natural continuation of
the rounded stroke of the bowl To draw
Italic Swash"
Left swashes Capitals, use
When creatinga swash the same pen 3
from the bowl of a letter, asfor ltalic .-- ---4
such as that of the B or R, it minuscules Alternatiuely,
is important that the swash (pp. e6-e7) the stem of the F
is a natural extension of the can terminate in
bowl stroke, with the pen a horizontalfoot
pulled in a sweeping Top swashes (see H, p-eJ-owJ
movement. The letters in The stem can be extended
the alphabet (ight) show upward and pulled to the right in
2
the swashes added as the manner of a corsiva ascender J.--._-,

separate strokes. on the Italic minuscule (gtp. 9G9n 5

3
Draw the loop in a single
nxouement without
altering the pen angle

Twist the penfrom

30o to the uertical,
moye downward
slightly, and lift

Looped terminals Formal arm serifs

This clubbed, looped terminal can be This formal type of serif provides an 2

used as an alternative to the swash in
finishing the stem stroke. It works
particularly well on a single stem
letter such as an l or P. Create the
loop by crossing back over the stem
and pulling the stroke out to the right.
''fflf
elegant contrast to the flourishes. In -----)
construction, it closely imitates the
brush-drawn Imperial Capital serif
(pp. 11O-119). On reaching the end
of the arm, begin to twist the pen
from 30o to the vertical.

100