Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter 1.research Methods
Chapter 1.research Methods
Introduction
Definitions of Research
The word research is composed of two syllabuses, re and search. The dictionary
defines the former as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the latter as a
verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try or to probe. Together
they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in
some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.
The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of current English lays down the meaning of
research as a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts
in any branch of knowledge.
Research is a structured inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to
solve problems and creates new knowledge that is generally applicable.
Research is a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem.
Research is a systematic, controlled empirical and critical investigation of
propositions about the presumed relationships about various phenomena.
Research is defined as a search for knowledge.
Research is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific
topic.
Research is an art of investigation.
Research is a movement from the known to the unknown.
Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
Research is the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice of an art.
Research is an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement.
Research is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and
experiment.
Research is the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solutions to a problem.
Research refers to the systematic method consisting of enumerating the problem,
formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and
reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions toward the concerned
problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.
Characteristics of Research
From the above definitions it is clear that research is a process for collecting,
analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions. But to qualify as a
research, a process must have certain characteristics as listed below:
Controlled
In exploring the causality relation to two variables, the study must be set in way that
minimizes the effects of other factors affecting relationship. In social science
research, however, since controlling is almost impossible, the effect of the other
variable must be quantified rather.
Rigorous
One must be very careful (scrupulous) in ensuring that the procedures followed to
find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.
Valid and verifiable
This concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is
correct and can be verified by you and others.
Empirical
This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from
information collected from real life experiences or observations.
Critical
The methods employed and procedures used should be critically scrutinized. The
process of investigation must be foolproof and free from any drawbacks. The process
adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
Objectives of Research
To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into ( studies
with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research
studies);
To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group ( studies with this objective are called descriptive research studies);
To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies.
To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are
known as hypothesis testing research studies).
Motivations in Research
What makes people to undertake research? The possible motives for doing
research may be either one or more of the following among others:
Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
Desire to face the challenges in solving the unresolved problems, i.e.,
concern over practical problems initiates research;
Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
Desire to be of service to society;
Desire to get respectability.
Types of Research
There are different bases in classifying researches; however we will see only the
most common bases and these classifications which are relevant to our syllabus.
First, there are two broad classification of research that follows:
1. Research in physical sciences
2. Research in social sciences
Physical sciences deal with things, which can be put to laboratory tests under
guided conditions. These researches deal with physical phenomena upon which
man has complete control.
Researches in social sciences are based on human behavior, which is influenced
by so many factors, such as physical, social, temperamental, psychological and
economic. We dwell for some time on this category of research in the
forthcoming subtopics as the whole handout is about social sciences research
methods.
Social Research
Social research is part of research, which studies human behavior on a part of
society. Social research is to find explanation to unexplained social phenomena, to
clarify doubts and correct the misconceived facts of social life.
Social research can be defined as:
Systematic investigation to gain new knowledge about social phenomena and
surveys.
A systematic method of exploring, analyzing and conceptualizing social life in
order to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aid in the
construction of a theory or in the practice of an art.
A scientific undertaking which by means of logical and systematized techniques
aims to discover new facts or verify and test old facts, analyze their sequences,
interrelationships and causal explanation which were derived within an
appropriate theoretical frame of reference, develop new scientific tools, concepts
and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behavior
and social life and thereby gain greater control overtime.
A study of mankind in his social environment and is concerned with improving
his understanding of social orders, groups, institutions and ethics.
A collection of methods and methodologies that researchers apply systematically
to produce scientifically based knowledge about the social world.
Characteristics of Social Research
From the above given definitions the following characteristics of social research may be
drawn:
1. It deals with social phenomena. It studies the behavior of human beings as a
member of a society and their feelings, responses and attitudes under different
circumstances. It encompasses the study of social phenomena covering economic,
political, social, educational, administrative and related aspects of social life. The
social research was born out to solve social problems.
2. It aims at discovering of new facts. The scientific research techniques are applied
to find out truth reasoning or relationship of various kind of human behavior.
3. It is a scientific undertaking in which logical and systematized techniques are
used. It also develops new scientific tools and concepts which facilitate reliable
and valid study of human behavior.
4. It assists in the undertaking of evolution of new theories. Every research
highlights some broad principles, establishes some scientific truth and analysis
their sequences, interrelationships and causal explanations. This results in
expansion of knowledge, improvement in the understanding of the social
phenomena and in the evolution of new theories.
5. It requires deep knowledge and minute investigation of the topic concerned.
6. It must be objective. Research should not take his own interest because any
personal bias vitiates the universality criterion of scientific proposition.
7. Experimentation is not possible in social researches. However, in some cases
social research takes the shelter of controlled experiments.
8. Inter-relationship between variables under study is must. Besides it, the variables
of social research study can not be measured correctly, only rough estimation of
variables is possible.
9. It is dynamic in nature, therefore, what was true of past might not be true of
present.
10. It is inter-related. Therefore, we can not draw water-tight compartments for each
sector or we cannot say whether it is purely political, economic, or sociological
research.
11. It tells that the social events are also governed by the rules and regulations as
physical events.
12. It is complementary to research in physical sciences and both branches of
knowledge help each other and are the way to progress.
Motivating factors of social Research
The following are four motivating factors:
1. Curiosity about unknown: Curiosity is an intrinsic trait of human mind and a
compelling drive in the exploration of man’s surroundings. It is natural instinct in
the makings. A man is always curious about the unknown and mysterious objects
that he notices around him and tries to understand them in his own. The same
curiosity drives social scientists to explore, reveal and understand unknown
factors behind the social phenomena.
2. Desire to understand the cause and effect Relationship of Social problems:
The research of cause and effect relationship has been more relentless than almost
any other scientist effort upon which human energies have been spent.
3. Appearance of New and unexpected Situations: In modern complex and
dynamic world a man is often faced with many acute and difficult problems. It is
the duty of the social scientist to find out their real cause and suggest solutions to
such problems.
4. Desire to Discover New and Old Scientific Procedures: It concerns with the
technique or methods used in social research. Social scientists have been busy in
devising and developing new methods and techniques in place old ones for
dealing with social problems.
Importance of Social Research
In general way, some of the directly practical benefits and theoretic implications of
social research may be listed as follows:
1. Guides in social planning: Adequate social planning depends for its success
on a systematic knowledge of the social resources and liabilities, of the people
and their culture, of their similarities and differences, of organizations and
operative controls of their needs, hopes and problems, etc.
2. Provides knowledge to Control any social Phenomena: By affording first
hand knowledge about the organization and working of society and its
institution, Social research acts as a source of a power to control social
phenomena. Furthermore, social research has practical implications for formal
and informal types of leadership, pattern of influence and reform in different
spheres of society.
3. Contributes to the betterment of social welfare.
4. Ascertain orders among facts.
5. Contributes for the advancement and improvement of social research
techniques.
6. Provides solutions to social problems.
7. Contributes to the development of developing countries.
Problems/challenges in Social Researches
Following are the main difficulties faced by the researchers in the application of
scientific methods in social research:
1. Complexity of Social Data: The behavior of human beings or economic
problems, a subject of social research, are influenced by so many factors. Because
of these factors a researcher is generally confused.
2. Problems in Interpreting Relationship Between Cause and Effect: In case of
social phenomena the cause and effect are interdependent and one stimulates the
other. It is very difficult to establish cause and effect relationship in social
sciences and to find as to what is the cause and what is its effect?
3. Problems of Concepts
4. Dynamic Nature of Social Phenomena: Human society is constantly changing
and improving itself by past knowledge.
5. Problem of Maintaining Objectivity: Achieving an effective degree of
objectivity in social inquiry is very difficult task. Different findings on the same
issue arise most often.
6. Unpredictability: Predictability is one of the most important characteristics of
science. Because of the complexity of social data and irregularity of social
behavior, predicting is challenging in social researches.
7. Difficulty in the verification of the Inferences: Verification of the results
obtained is possible in physical sciences but in the case of social sciences it is
much more difficult. The events in social sciences are non-repetitive and social
scientists are ill-equipped with their tools to verify prediction.
8. Difficulty in The Use of Experiment Methods: It is not possible to put human
beings to laboratory tests. Even if it is done their responses would not be natural
but subject to the awareness of the artificial conditions.
9. Incapability of being Dealt Through Empirical Method: Exact sciences tend to
become increasingly quantitative in its units, measures and terminology while
most of matter of social sciences in qualitative and does not admit to quantitative
statement. Direct quantification of socio-economic variables is not possible; we
can have only rough estimates. Data is more reliable in physical sciences.
Because data obtained in social research is always changing, as some variables
are changing in social sciences. Empirical method gives very accurate results
when experiment on social phenomena is repeatedly carried on. But in case of
social sciences repeated experimentation is is not possible. Empirical methods are
methods of statistics therefore, all problems, limitations, distrusts in statistical
methods are also problems of social research. For example problem of unbiased
sampling, selection of data etc.
10. Problem of Inter-disciplinary Research: Social research in any field are
interrelated, therefore, we can not draw watertight compartments for each sector
social sciences. We can not say whether it is purely political research, economic
research or purely sociological research. But in case of physical sciences, it is
possible to a very great extent to state whether it is physical or chemical or
biological problem. The main problem in interdisciplinary research is that every
branch of knowledge has its own line of approach and a methodology suited for
the purpose when these are tried to be fitted in a single frame, distortions are
bound to take place.
11. Less Finance: Social researchers get less finance than a researcher in physical
sciences as a result the rate of progress in social sciences research is less than that
of the physical sciences researches.
To sum up, social sciences are less precise in its findings than the natural sciences
because it deals with human society whose group as well as individual behaviour has
always been more diverse, full of more surprises and less predicate. Like natural
sciences we do not have nice neat equations that will yield answers to all situations.
Research can also be classified from other three perspectives. However, these
perspectives are not mutually exclusive .
1. The application of the research study;
2. the objectives in undertaking the research ; and
3. the type of information sought.
Classification of research based on Application of the research study
If you examine a research endeavors from the perspective of its application, there
are two broad categories: pure research and applied research.
Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypothesis that are
intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical
application at the present time or in the future. Thus such work often involves the
testing of hypothesis containing very abstract and specialized concepts.
Pure research is also concerned with the development, examination, verification and
refinement of research methods, procedures, techniques and tools that form the body
of research methodology.
The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the
existing body of knowledge of research methods.
In applied research the research techniques, procedures and methods that form the
body of research methodology are applied to the collection of information about
various aspects of a situation, issue, problem or phenomenon so that information
gathered can be used in other ways- such as for policy formulation, administration,
and the enhancement of understanding of a phenomenon.
Most of the researches in the social sciences are applied researches.
Types of Research
From the View point of
Correlational Qualitative
Applied Research Research
Research
Explanatory
Research
Exploratory
Research
The two terms research and scientific methods are closely related.
Research, as already stated, can be termed as an inquiry in to the nature of , the reasons
for, and the consequences of any particular set of circumstances, whether these
circumstances are experimentally controlled or recorded just as they occur.
On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research methods and techniques,
although they may vary considerably from one science to another, is usually given the
name of scientific method.
Scientific method is a pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The ideal
of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method attempts to
achieve this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted
postulates and combination of these three in varying proportions.
Nature of
Number of contacts Reference period
investigation