II.

EXTRINSIC FACTORS

What are the extrinsic factors for reading achievement is all about?

 Extrinsic factors are outside influences.

 If you read for extrinsic reasons you do it because it’s necessary to pass a test or
succeed at something else.
 Extrinsic things to help people read would be prizes for reading a certain amount.

Extrinsic Benefits are "added on" and additional to compliance: "If you do X you will receive
Y."

The simplest example is a bribe.  In fact, all extrinsic benefits are essentially bribes.

An extrinsic benefit is the biscuit you give a dog if it gets your slippers for you.

Extrinsic Examples: 

"If you do X you will receive Y."

"Get straight A's this semester and I'll buy you a car."

"Study hard so you can get rich."

"Complete this report early and get a Christmas bonus"

"Show up for work every day and I'll pay you."

"Be virtuous and you'll get into heaven."

SOCIAL/ENVIRONMENTAL

Environmental factors include the student’s home, school, and cultural environments.
Environmental factors are associated with reading disability. Students live and grow in
several different environments, and each environment has a strong influence on student
desires and abilities to learn. Environments include the student’s home environment, school
environment, social environment, and cultural environment. Each of these environments can
affect a student’s reading.

The home is the child’s first environment. The child’s home environment can be the
foundation for tremendous cognitive growth development. The child experiences that occur
during the critical first 5 to 6 years of life have powerful influences on a child’s development.

FAMILY AND PEERS

The Importance of Family Reading

Reading gives us two gifts—the gift of understanding and the gift of feeling understood.
Every new book you read shows you another life, another time or place or way of being.
Every new book also assures you that yes, other people have felt as afraid, as embarrassed,
as sad, as giddy and as joyful as you have felt.
Through reading, we learn empathy, compassion, respect and understanding. How lucky we
are as parents to be able to give our children those skills by doing something as simple and
enjoyable as reading.

In the U.S., one-third of all public school fourth graders score below basic reading levels and
nearly half of all parents express concern that their children do not read enough for fun.
While these numbers are staggering, the solution is simple.

Emilie Buchwald, an award-winning children’s author, once said “Children are made readers
on the laps of their parents,” and research shows that when families read together,
learning happens and memories are made that last a lifetime.

The Vocabulary Booster

Creating a daily family reading habit gives children a boost over their peers. According to the
annual “What Kids Are Reading” report by Renaissance Learning, students who read less
than 15 minutes per day will only encounter about 1.5 million words by the time they get to
grade 12, but students who read 15 minutes or more per day will encounter 5.7 million words
by grade 12.

And the number of words students are exposed to increases exponentially with each
additional minute they read.

Time spent reading together as a family is a long-term investment in vocabulary exposure.

Family reading experiences give children the chance to ask questions about words they
don’t understand, which leads to more effective reading.

In order for students to build and strengthen their vocabularies, children need to be
repeatedly exposed to a variety of words in a variety of contexts. Reading together every day
allows parents to explain each new meaning of a vocabulary word their children come
across. It also encourages children to read more on their own—in fact, according to a
Scholastic study “Kids’ Reading in the Digital Age”, 73% of children say they get
ideas from their parents for books to read for fun.  

The Career-Maker (or Breaker)

Over time, reading practices contribute to whether or not a child reaches college- and
career-readiness (CCR) benchmarks. According to Renaissance Learning’s annual report,
only about 39% of typical students meet CCR benchmarks for their grade.

By contrast, 66% students who engaged in a fair amount (15 minutes or more) of high-
quality, daily reading practice (such as daily family reading time) meet CCR benchmarks with
ease.

This increased likelihood to be college- and career-ready holds true across student
populations, including those who struggle with reading, are English language learners or
who receive free/reduced lunch.

The gap between typical students and students who read every day shows that while in-
class instruction is of course essential to closing CCR achievement gaps, making sure
students spend enough time engaging in high-quality reading experiences like daily family
reading time is a key part of the solution.
Parents can also stimulate their child’s love for reading. Parents who read to children, take
them to libraries, and buy books as presents teach children to value reading. When children
observe parents who are readers, the parents provide a role model for literacy. Further, the
parental role continues to be crucial even after the child enters school.

PEER INFLUENCE IN READING

Research has found that peers influence the academic achievement of children. However,
the mechanisms through which peers matter remain underexplored. The present study
examined the relationship between peers’ reading skills and children’s own reading skills
among 4,215 total second- and third-graders in 294 classrooms across 41 schools. One
innovation of the study was the use of social network analysis to directly assess who
children reported talking to or seeking help from and whether children who identified peers
with stronger reading skills experienced higher reading skills. The results indicated that
children on average identified peers with stronger reading skills and the positive association
between peer reading skills and children’s own reading achievement was strongest for
children with lower initial levels of reading skills. The study has implications for how teachers
can leverage the advantages of peers via in-class activities.

Educational Impact and Implications Statement This study shows that early elementary
school children report identifying and interacting with peers with stronger reading skills within
the same classroom. Children with low initial reading skills are more likely to identify such
peers than high achieving children and those who do so experience higher reading
outcomes later on. The study suggests that peer effects may occur through the peer-seeking
patterns of children and the direct expertise of their peers.

THE READING TEACHER – A SCHOLAR AND ROMANTICIST

What Does a Reading Teacher Do?

Reading teachers use curriculum guidelines to develop lesson plans to teach students to
read, write and pronounce words. They must ensure their lesson plans are age-appropriate
for the students they're working with. Reading teachers may be employed at public or private
schools. They usually need a bachelor's degree in a relevant subject area, such as English,
and those employed by public schools need a teaching license. They work with students of
all age levels. The focus of their work is usually with students who have learning disabilities
or difficulties understanding how to read and write. They may instruct students in spelling,
phonetics or grammar. Some reading teachers may assist teachers in their class, while they
may also have a separate room where they instruct students. They may work with students
who are on special education plans and may need to modify the standard curriculum for
those students. Below, you can learn more details about the career of a reading teacher:

Reading teachers, also called language arts teachers, instruct students in reading,
speaking, listening and writing. In this job, you would teach younger students how to
pronounce words, spell correctly and practice listening skills. With older students, you might
help them master comprehension, fluency and vocabulary. You might work with individual
students or instruct an entire class.

READING TEACHER AS SCHOLAR

 Our main task is to develop students who can and do read

 We should often ask ourselves: Do we have the competencies to empower our
students?
 As scholars, we cannot and must not teach what we do not know. By being naturally
curious, we are becoming students once again. Such curiosity allows us to modify
 our philosophies continually and to apply our minds to discovering how we, and our
students, learn to learn.
 Teachers have an obligation to continue to be learners: to study, to seek out the
latest research, to ponder their developing knowledge of the reading process.

 According to Manning, a reading teacher must have continuing education in the

following:

1. The professional literature

2. Subject matter
3. The reading curriculum
4. Reading methodology

TEACHER AS ROMANTICIST

The other important role for the reading teacher echoes the different intangibles and different
factors.

 A teacher must be a romanticist, possessing the wisdom that ensures his/her

students’ use of reading as a means of personal and societal fulfilment.
 According to Manning, these wisdoms include:
 Immersion in the world of books, stories, poetry, and drama
 Being literate exemplars, demonstrating by their knowledge and by their language
familiarity with literature that has guaranteed personal liberty and intellectual freedom
for all who have known it.
 Understanding and acceptance of why students communicate as they do.
 Enlightening students to recognize and appreciate the inherent dignity of all human
labor through words of good moral sense and common decency, and to seek through
language and reading a universe of peace.
 The greatest gift the teacher can give: the unbridled romantic love affair with
language and books – a gift that shall remain long after the sweet gentle memories of
school have dimmed and faded forever.

THE TEXT ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURE

TEXT STRUCTURE

Text structure refers to how the information within a written text is organized. This strategy
helps students understand that a text might present a main idea and details; a cause and
then its effects; and/or different views of a topic. Teaching students to recognize common
text structures can help students monitor their comprehension.

BENEFITS

Teachers can use this strategy with the whole class, small groups, or individually. Students
learn to identify and analyze text structures which helps students navigate the various
structures presented within nonfiction and fiction text. As a follow up, having students write
paragraphs that follow common text structures helps students recognize these text
structures when they are reading.

CREATE AND USE THE STRATEGY

To create the text structure strategy teachers should:

1. Choose the assigned reading and introduce the text to the students.
2. Introduce the idea that texts have organizational patters called text structures.

 Introduce the following common text structures description,

 sequence,
 problem and solution,
 cause and effect, and
 compare and contrast.

3. Introduce and model using a graphic organizer to chart the text structure.

To use the text structure strategy teachers should:

1. Show examples of paragraphs that correspond to each text structure.

2. Examine topic sentences that clue the reader to a specific structure.
3. Model the writing of a paragraph that uses a specific text structure.
4. Have students try write paragraphs that follow a specific text structure.
5. Have students diagram these structures using a graphic organizer.

FIVE ORGANIZATIONAL MODELS

A well-organized essay or story helps your reader follow your ideas easily. Good writers
learn how to use organization to guide their readers’ understanding, rather than simply
leaving the ideas on the page in the order in which they first occurred to the writer.

The genre you are working with will help determine your organizational structure. These five
basic organizational models (sequence, description, cause and effect, compare and
contrast, and problem and solution) may help you consider how to organize your essay or
story.

SEQUENCE - words that bring order

Sequence words help show the order of things. They help signal such things as when
something happened, the steps in a sequence, and the logical order of things.

Uses time or spatial order as the organizing structure. Memoir, autobiography, fairytales,
folktales, fantasy, and science fiction often use a sequential organization. The most basic
sequence includes an initiating event, complicating actions that build to a high point, and a
resolution.

Example: Cinderella was a poor sister who was treated badly [initiating event]. Went to a
ball that transformed her [complicating actions]. Her foot fit in the slipper [high point]. She
lived happily ever after [resolution].

EXAMPLES OF OPENING STATEMENTS

 There are several steps to this process. The first is . . .

 In the beginning, ____.
 In their recent work, ____.
 It’s never to early to ____.

SEQUENCES
  First, second, third
 First of all, then, meanwhile
 Former, latter
 In the first place, in the second place, . .
 For one thing, ______

SIGNAL WORDS AND PHRASES

A, B, C ,after, afterward, afterwards, already, always, as soon as, at last, at length, at (time),
at that time, at this point, at this time, bedtime, before, currently, future, here, there, how to,
immediately, in order, in the future, in the meantime, In the past, Initially, on time, past,
preceding, present, presently, previously, prior, prior to, recently, second, sequence, shortly,
since, soon, subsequently, then, thereafter, third, time

DESCRIPTION - provide details and examples

Words and phrases that describe help to “paint a picture” for the reader about whatever it is
you are writing – the topic.

Enumerates the characteristic features and events of a specific subject. Good descriptive
writing appeals to the senses with imagery and relate specific details. It can be helpful to
organize a description according to the reporter’s questions “Who, what when, where, how,
and why?

Example: A profile of a cherished friend or a remembrance of a childhood event.

QUESTIONS

 What is being described?

 Why is this thing being described?
 Is one thing or more than one thing being described?
 For each thing being described, what are the details and examples
that support the description?

SIGHT - black, blue, brilliant, drab, flushed, green, indigo, large, opaque, orange, red, ruddy,
sepia, shimmering, small, smoky, snowy, translucent, transparent, twinkling, white, violet,
yellow

SMELL - acidic, acrid, aromatic, foul, fragrant, fresh, funky, heady, moldy, musky, nasty,
noxious, odor, perfumed, piney, pungent, rancid, savory, sharp ,smelly, stinky, stuffy,
sweaty, sweet

TASTE - acidic, biting, bitter, brackish, dirty, dry, flavorful, fresh, fruity, full-bodied, gamy,
gross, juicy peppery, rank sharp, sour succulent, sugary, sweet, syrupy, tangy, tart, zesty

TOUCH - burning, cold, damp, dry, feathery, frosty, furry, fuzzy, gnarled, gritty, hairy, hot,
knotted, leathery, limp, lumpy oily, ribbed, rough, slimy, smooth, splintered, sticky ,stinging,
wet

SOUND - barking, bawling, bellow, blare, cackle, chatter, cheer, clash, coo, cough, din,
discordant, fizz, gasp, grating, grunting, jarring, loud, moaning, mumbling, murmuring, noisy,
outcry, pandemonium, piercing, pounding, quiet, racket, rasping, raucous, rhythmic, ringing,
rumble, rustle, scratching, scratchy, scream, screech, shout, shriek, shrill, snort, sob, splash,
tapping, tearing, thunderous, tight-lipped, tinkling, tranquil, tweet, uproar, vocalize, voiceless,
volume, wail, warble, weeping, whimpering, whistling, wordless, yapping, yell, yelp ,yodel,

CAUSE AND EFFECT - why something happened/what happened

The cause tells why something happened. The effect tells what happened.

Shows causal relationships between events. Authors often use this organization to assert
and explain arguments about how things are and how they got that way.

Example: The future of gorillas in the wild is at risk [argument]. Gorilla meat is a dietary
staple for 12 million people in Africa [cause]. Scientists predict that at the present rate of
decline, in 30 years all of the world’s wild gorillas will be gone [effect].

CAUSE QUESTIONS

 What happened?
 Why did it happen?
 To whom or what did it happen?
 When did it happen?
 What brought about the action?
 What else happened because of that event?
 Is there more than one cause?
 If there is more than one cause, is one more powerful than the others?
 What was the cause?
 What are the details and examples that explain the causes?

CAUSE - why something happened

because, being that, begins with, cause, due to the fact that, for the simple reason, that, for
this reason, for as much as, gives rise to, if this happens, in as much as, in that in view of the
fact, leads to, led to, may be due to, now that, origin, owing to the fact, reason, seeing that,
source, when, is caused by . . . , the cause is . . . , may be due to . . . , the reason this,
happened is, on account of (cause), this, since (cause) happened . . . , this (cause) led
to . . ., actions leading to (effect) included . . ., because (cause), happened, as a result of
(cause) . . ., when ____ happened, . . for this reason

EFFECT QUESTIONS

 What is the impact?

 Who or what is effected?
 What are the details and examples that show the effect?
 Was there one effect or more than one?
 If there was more than one effect, was one stronger or more important
than the others?
 What are the consequences?

EFFECT - what happened

accordingly, all in all, as a result of, on account of, as a consequence, as a result of, as
might be, expected, because, because of this, effect, effects of, impact, outcome, result,
results in, as a result, consequence, consequently, due to, for this reason, finally, happened
hence, if . . . then . . ., in consequence, it follows that, it follows then, impact is, impact will
be, namely, outcome, result, since, so, so that, then, therefore, thereupon, thus, this (cause)
led to .. . this happened because . . ., because of as a consequence, (effect) happened. ,as
a result, (effect), happened. this led to (effect)., when, this results in

COMPARE AND CONTRAST

Explains how two or more objects or events are similar or different. In preparation for writing
a Compare and Contrast essay, it is often useful to create graphic organizers, such as venn
diagrams, compare/contrast lists, and data matrices, to compare features across different
categories.

Examples: A personal or expository essay on vacationing on the beach vs. in the

mountains. Comparative profiles of two leaders or countries.

COMPARE - how things are alike

When you compare two or more things, you show how they are alike, or similar.

SIGNAL WORDS AND PHRASES

Alike, along, the same lines, also at the same time, and, as as well as, both, by the same
token, can be compared, comparable, comparatively, compare, correspondingly, each,
equal, equally, even, in common, in comparison, In like manner, in the same manner, in the
same way, in similar fashion, just as ,just like, least, less than, like, likewise, more than, most
important, neither ,resemble , same, same as share, similar to, similarly, so too ,the same,
the same as, too, twin

CONTRAST - how things are different

When you contrast two or more things, you show how they are different.

Contrasting does not always mean good vs. bad. It also means how one thing is simply
different from another.

SIGNAL WORDS AND PHRASES

although, and yet, better, but, by contrast, conversely, despite, differ, difference, different,
different from, differently, either/or, even though, however, in contrast, instead ,former/latter,
more/less than, neither/nor, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary, on the other hand,
opposite, otherwise regardless, still, though, unequal, unless, unlike, variations, vary,
whereas, while, yet

PROBLEM AND SOLUTION - find the issue and solve it

Describes a problem and proposes a solution. It often debates the relative merits of multiple
solutions before arguing in favor of the best solution.

Problem and Solution signal words help tell about a problem or issue, why there is a
problem or issue, and then gives one or more possible solutions.

Example: There has been a recent increase in bullying at the middle school [problem].
Several policies have been proposed to punish offenders [debate].The middle school should
implement x solution for y reasons [solution]

QUESTIONS - PROBLEMS

 What is the problem?

 Why is this a problem?
 How long has this been a problem?
 To whom or what is this a problem?
 What are the details related to the problem?
 What are the causes of the problem?

SIGNAL WORDS AND PHRASES

PROBLEM

conundrum , dilemma, factor, issue, problem, problematic, puzzle, quandary, question,

reason ,situation

• A reason for the problem is ___.

• Factors impacting this problem include ___.

• The issue being dealt with is ___.

• This is a problem because ___.

Answer, possibility ,proposition ,solution ,remedy ,resolution

• A solution for this is ___.

• This can be solved by ___.

• One way to resolve this is ___.

• One answer to this is ___.

• Potential solutions include ___.

QUESTIONS – SOLUTION

 Can the problem be solved, resolved, or just reduced?

 What is a solution for the problem?
 What resources are needed to solve the problem?