Princess Marie M.

Tecson BSBA-MKM ETEEAP

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

What is matter? Matter is everything around you. Atoms and compounds are all made

of very small parts of matter. Those atoms go on to build the things you see and touch
every day. Matter is defined as anything that has mass and takes up space (it has
volume).

What is mass? Mass is the amount of matter in an object. You might have a small
object with a lot of mass such as a statue made of lead (Pb). You might have a large
object with very little mass such as a balloon filled with helium (He). You should also
know there is a difference between mass and weight. Mass is a measure of the matter
in an object while weight is a measure of gravity’s pull on an object.

What is volume? Volume is the amount of space something occupies. Words such as

big, little, long, or short are used to describe volumes. A marble takes up a small
volume while a star occupies a large volume. Different states of matter will fill volumes
in different ways.

Even though matter can be found all over the Universe, you will only find it in a few
forms (states) on Earth. We cover five states of matter on the site. Each of those states
is sometimes called a phase. There are many other states of matter that exist in
extreme environments. Scientists will probably discover more states of matter as we
continue to explore the Universe.

Five States of Matter

What are the main states of matter? Everyone should know about solids, liquids, gases,
and plasmas. Scientists have always known about solids, liquids, and gases. Plasma was
a new idea when it was identified by William Crookes in 1879. We also like to talk about
the Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC). It’s a fun state of matter when you remove almost
all energy from a system. The scientists (Cornell, Ketterle, and Wieman) who worked
with the Bose-Einstein condensate received a Nobel Prize for their work in 2001.

What makes a state of matter? It's all about the physical state and energy in the
atoms and molecules. Think about solids. Physical properties of a solid often include
"hard" and "brittle." Liquids are fluidy, move around a little, and fill up containers.
Gases are always around you, but the molecules of a gas are much farther apart than
the molecules in a liquid. If a gas has an odor, you’ll often be able to smell it before you
can see it. The BEC is all about atoms that are closer and less energetic than atoms in a
solid.
Changing States of Matter

What is a physical change in matter? Molecules can move from one physical state to
another (phase change) and not change their atomic structure. Oxygen (O2) gas has
the same chemical properties as liquid oxygen. The liquid state is colder and denser
(less energy), but the molecules are the same. Water (H 2O) is another example. A
water molecule is made up of two hydrogen (H) atoms and one oxygen (O) atom. It
has the same molecular structure whether it is a gas, liquid, or solid. Although its
physical state may change because of different amounts of energy, its atomic structure
remains the same.

So what is a chemical change in matter? Let's start with that glass of pure water. If the
formula of water were to change, that would be a chemical change. If you could add a
second oxygen atom to a water (H2O) molecule, you would have hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2). The molecules would not be "water" anymore. In reality, there are a variety of
steps that go into creating hydrogen peroxide from water.

Physical changes are related to changes in the immediate environment 

such as temperature, pressure, and other physical forces. Chemical changes occur
when the bonds between atoms in a compound are created or destroyed. Generally, the
basic chemical structure does not change when there is a physical change. Of course, in
extreme environments such as the Sun, no molecule is safe from destruction.

States of Matter

We look at five states of matter on the site. Solids, liquids, gases, plasmas, and Bose-
Einstein condensates (BEC) are different states of matter that have different physical
properties. Solids are often hard, liquids fill containers, and gases surround us in the air.
Each of these states is also known as a phase.
How does matter change from one state to another? Elements and compounds can
move from one state to another when specific physical conditions change. For example,
when the temperature of a system goes up, the matter in
the system becomes more excited and active. If enough
energy is pushed into a system, a phase change may occur
as the matter moves to a more active state.

Let’s say you have a glass of water (H 2O). When the

temperature of the water goes up, the molecules get more
excited and bounce around a lot more. If you give
a liquid water molecule enough energy, it escapes the liquid phase and becomes a gas.
The extra energy allows the molecules to change states.

Have you ever noticed that you can smell a turkey dinner after it starts to heat up? As
the energy of the molecules inside the turkey heat up, they escape as a gas. You are
able to smell the volatile compounds that are mixed in the air around you.

It’s About the Physical

"Phase" describes the physical state of matter. The key word to notice is "physical".
Matter only moves from one phase to another by physical means. If energy is added
(increasing the temperature) or if energy is taken away (freezing something), you can
create a physical change.

Changing the pressure of a system is another way to create a physical change. If you

place a glass of liquid water on a table, it will just sit there. If you place a glass of water
in a vacuum chamber and lower the pressure, you can begin to watch the water boil
and the water molecules move to a gas phase.

When molecules move from one phase to another they are still the same substance.
There is water vapor above a pot of boiling water. That vapor (or gas)
can condense and become a drop of liquid water in the cooler air. If you put that
liquid drop in the freezer, it would become a solid piece of ice. No matter what physical
state it was in, it was always water. Even though the physical state changed, the
chemical properties were the same.

On the other hand, a chemical change would build or break the chemical bonds in the
water (H2O) molecules. If you added a carbon (C) atom, you would create
formaldehyde (H2CO). If you added an oxygen (O) atom, you would create hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2). Neither new compound is anything like the original water molecule.
Generally, changes in the physical state do not lead to any chemical change in
compounds.

States of Matter Examples

A Liquid Ocean
There are many liquids around you. Oceans, lakes, and rivers are good examples of
liquid water (H2O). Planetary scientists are looking for other planets that have liquid
water, but planets require very specific conditions to have water as we know it.

Solids in Ceramics
Ceramic bowls are a great example of a solid. Did you know that pieces of pottery make
up many of the items found from ancient civilizations? Ceramic materials are usually
made from soft clay that is heated up and then slowly cooled. The clay becomes very
hard because water (H2O) is removed and the chemical bonds inside the clay change.

Plasmas on the Sun

Plasmas are highly energized gases that have lost their electrons. Stars, including the
Sun, are covered in plasma. Hydrogen (H) and helium (He) ions float around the Sun
with their electrons moving freely.
Gases in Balloons
Balloons aren’t technically gases. They
are little pieces of rubber.However,
the helium (He) inside the balloon is a
gas. Helium is a noble gas that has a
very low atomic mass. In its gaseous
state, it is lighter than air. The helium
atoms have a lower mass than
the nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2)
molecules that fill most of our air. The
lower mass and lightness helps balloons
to float.

Changing States of Matter

All matter can move from one state to another. It may require extreme temperatures
or extreme pressures, but it can be done. Sometimes a substance doesn't want to
change states. You have to use all of your tricks when that happens. To create a  solid,
you might have to decrease the temperature by a huge amount and then
add pressure. For example, oxygen (O2) will solidify at -361.8 degrees Fahrenheit (-
218.8 degrees Celsius) at standard pressure. However, it will freeze at warmer
temperatures when the pressure is increased.

Some of you know about liquid nitrogen (N2). It is nitrogen from the atmosphere in

a liquid form and it has to be super cold to stay a liquid. What if you wanted to turn it
into a solid but couldn't make it cold enough to solidify? You could increase the
pressure in a sealed chamber. Eventually you would reach a point where the liquid
became a solid. If you have liquid water (H 2O) at room temperature and you wanted
water vapor (gas), you could use a combination of high temperatures or low pressures
to solve your problem.

Points of Change
Phase changes happen when you reach certain special points. Sometimes a liquid
wants to become a solid. Scientists use something called a freezing point or melting
point to measure the temperature at which a liquid turns into a solid. There
are physical effects that can change the melting point. Pressure is one of those
effects. When the pressure surrounding a substance increases, the freezing point and
other special points also go up. It is easier to keep things solid when they are under
greater pressure.

Generally, solids are more dense than liquids because their molecules are closer
together. The freezing process compacts the molecules into a smaller space.

There are always exceptions in science. Water is special on many levels. It has more
space between its molecules when it is frozen. The molecules organize in a specific
arrangement that takes up more space than when they are all loosey-goosey in the
liquid state. Because the same number of molecules take up more space, solid water is
less dense than liquid water. There are many other types of molecular organizations in
solid water than we can talk about here.

CHEMISTRY TERM PHASE CHANGE

Fusion/Melting Solid to a Liquid
Freezing Liquid to a Solid
Vaporization/Boiling Liquid to a Gas
Condensation Gas to a Liquid
Sublimation Solid to a Gas
Deposition Gas to a Solid
Solid to a Liquid and Back to a Solid

Imagine that you are a solid. You're a cube of ice sitting on a counter. You dream of
becoming liquid water. You need some energy. Heat is probably the easiest energy
you can use to change your physical state. The atoms in a liquid have more energy
than the atoms in a solid.

There is a special temperature for every substance called the melting point. When a
solid reaches the temperature of its melting point, it can become a liquid. For water, the
temperature needs to be a little over zero degrees Celsius (0oC) for you to melt.

If you were salt, sugar, or rock, your melting point is higher than that of water. How do
you know that fact? If their melting points were lower, they would also be liquids when
the temperature is above zero degrees Celsius. The reverse of the melting process is
called freezing. Liquid water freezes and becomes solid ice when the molecules lose
energy.
Liquid to a Gas and Back to a Liquid

When you are a liquid and want to become a gas, you need to find a lot of energy.
Once you can direct that energy into your molecules, they will start to vibrate. If they
vibrate enough, they can escape the limitations of the liquid environment and become a
gas. When you reach your boiling point, the molecules in your system have enough
energy to become a gas.

The reverse is true if you are a gas. You need to lose some energy from your very
excited gas atoms. The easy answer is to lower the surrounding temperature. When the
temperature drops, energy will be transferred out of your gas atoms into the colder
environment. When you reach the temperature of the condensation point, you
become a liquid. If you were water vapor over a boiling pot of water and you hit a wall,
the wall would be cool, absorb some of your extra energy, and you could quickly
become a liquid. Cooler objects often absorb energy from hotter objects.

Gas to a Plasma and Back to a Gas

Plasma can be made from a gas if a lot of energy is pushed into the gas. In the case of
neon, it is electrical energy that pulls the electrons off. When it is time to become a
gas again, just flip the neon light switch off. Without the electricity to energize the
atoms, the neon plasma returns to its gaseous state. We have a special world here on
Earth. We have an environment where you don't find a lot of everyday plasma. Once
you leave Earth and travel through the Universe, you will find plasma everywhere. It's
in the stars and all of the space in between.

Examples of Phase Changes

Gases Under Pressure
If you have a propane (C3H8) barbecue, you have probably seen those cylinders filled
with fuel. In the cylinder, the propane molecules are in a liquid state at a high pressure.
When the molecules are released from the cylinder, they immediately become a gas
and you can cook your food. Pressure differences make the phase change.

Melting Ice
You can watch phase changes at home when you put a piece of ice (solid) on a
counter. As long as the temperature is above 0 degrees Celsius, that ice cube will warm
and melt. That melted puddle of water (H 2O) is a liquid. Heat makes the phase change.
Have a towel ready to clean up the mess.

Smelling Steak
Let’s say you’re cooking when you go camping or at a barbecue at home. When you put
the food on the grill, you don’t smell much. As the food heats up, aromatic molecules
begin to escape the surface of the food and diffuse through the air. Those volatile
molecules are heated up and become a gas when they evaporate. Heat makes the
phase change.
Plasma in Tubes
In many signs, there are glass tubes filled with neon (Ne) gas. Normally, the gas stays
a gas. When you turn on the sign and send an electric current through the tubes, the
neon loses its electrons and becomes plasma. Electricity makes the phase change.

Chemical Changes Versus Physical Changes

It is important to understand the difference between chemical and 

physical changes. Some changes are obvious, but there are some basic ideas you
should know. Physical changes are usually about physical states of matter. Chemical
changes happen on a molecular level when you have two or more molecules that
interact. Chemical changes happen when atomic bonds are broken or created during
chemical reactions.

No Change to Molecules

When you step on a can and crush it, you have forced a physical change. However, you
only changed the shape of the can. It wasn't a change in the state of matter because
the energy in the can did not change. Also, since this was a physical change, the
molecules in the can are still the same molecules. No chemical bonds were created or
broken.

When you melt an ice cube (H2O), you have a physical change because you
add energy. You added enough energy to create a phase change from solid to liquid.
Physical actions, such as changing temperature or pressure, can cause physical
changes. No chemical changes took place when you melted the ice. The water
molecules are still water molecules.

Changing the Molecules

Chemical changes happen on a much smaller scale. While some experiments show
obvious chemical changes, such as a color change, most chemical changes are not
visible. The chemical change as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) becomes water cannot be
seen since both liquids are clear. However, behind the scenes, billions of chemical
bonds are being created and destroyed. In this example, you may see bubbles
of oxygen (O2) gas. Those bubbles are evidence of the chemical changes.

Melting a sugar cube is a physical change because the substance is still sugar. Burning
a sugar cube is a chemical change. Fire activates a chemical reaction between sugar
and oxygen. The oxygen in the air reacts with the sugar and the chemical bonds are
broken.

Iron (Fe) rusts when it is exposed to oxygen gas in the air. You can watch the process
happen over a long period of time. The molecules change their structure as the iron
is oxidized, eventually becoming iron oxide (Fe2O3). Rusty pipes in abandoned
buildings are real world examples of the oxidation process.

Isomers

 
Some chemical changes are extremely small and happen over a series of steps. The
resulting compounds might have the same number of atoms, but they will have
a different structure or combination of atoms.

The sugars glucose, galactose, and fructose all have six carbon atoms, twelve hydrogen
atoms, and six oxygen atoms (C6H12O6). Even though they are made of the same atoms,
they have very different shapes and are called isomers. Isomers have atoms bonded in
different orders.

Each of the sugars goes through different chemical reactions because of the differences
in their molecular structure. Scientists say that the arrangement of atoms allows for a
high degree of specificity, especially in the molecules of living things. Specificity
means the molecules will only work in specific reactions, not all of them. For example,
your body uses glucose as an energy source. If you eat galactose molecules, they
need to be converted into glucose before your body can use them.
Types of Energy
Energy is invisible yet it’s all around us and throughout the universe.  We use it every
day, we have it in our bodies and some of it comes from other planets!  Energy can
never be made or destroyed, but its form can be converted and changed.  For example,
the chemical energy we get from our food turns into kinetic and thermal energy (see
below) when we walk and sound energy when we shout. The following chapters
describe the various forms energy can take and the story behind humans, energy, fuel
and the environment.

Kinetic - Anything that moves has this kind of energy.  To run, cycle, climb and move
the mouse for a computer we use kinetic energy.

Radiant - Radiant energy means light.  Examples of things that have radiant energy are
the Sun, lightbulbs and our computer screens.  Plants convert light energy into chemical
energy (food) which helps them to grown, this is known as photosynthesis.

Sound - The louder we shout the more sound energy we are using.  Apart from our
voices there are plenty of other examples of sound energies - guitars have sound
energy when plucked using kinetic energy.  So do the brakes on our bikes when we’re
traveling fast.

Thermal - If you’ve ever worn thermal underwear you might guess that thermal energy
is about heat! The sun gives off thermal energy, as do radiators and fires.  Even
lightbulbs when they’ve been on for a long time - ouch!

Elastic - Stretch a rubber band, or pull back the elastic on a slingshot and you’ll have
elastic energy.  This kind of energy is known as ‘potential energy’ as it can be stored
until it’s released - usually giving way to kinetic energy!

Gravitational - Ever fallen out of a tree?  Then you were a victim of gravitational
energy.  Gravitational energy is the force which keeps us on the ground. Gravitational
energy is why cycling downhill is faster than cycling up hill and why ski jumpers always
come back to earth.

Chemical - Chemical energies come in many different forms.  We get chemical energy
from foods, which we use to run about, and move and talk (kinetic and sound energy).
Chemical energies are stored in fuels which we burn to release thermal energy - this is
one way of making electricity, see Electricity for more information.

Nuclear - Nuclear energy is the energy stored inside tiny atoms.  Atoms are invisible
and make up the elements of the whole universe!  There are three parts to these tiny
particles which are - protons, electrons and neutrons.  Nuclear energy is released when
atoms are joined together (fusion) or split apart (fission).  Doing this converts energy
into thermal and radiant energy.  The Sun uses nuclear energy to produce its light and
heat.

Converting Energy - When we go for a run we are using chemical energy in our bodies
to produce movement (kinetic energy), which in turn converts to warmth (thermal
energy).  Cycling downhill involves kinetic and gravitational energy.  The friction
between the tires and the road will also cause the tires to warm up a little producing
thermal energy.
 Energy transfers

Energy can transfer or move from one store to another in different ways. Devices such
as lamps and heaters may be involved, or processes such as combustion. For example,
energy can be transferred:

 by heating
 mechanically
 electrically
 by radiation
Heating

Some objects are hotter than others. Energy is transferred from the hotter object to the
cooler one, and the difference in temperature between them decreases.

Mechanical transfer

Energy can be transferred mechanically through the movement of the parts in

machines, and when the motion or position of an object changes. Sound waves
and seismic waves (formed during earthquakes) are mechanical waves that transfer
energy through materials and from place to place.

Mechanical waves in the air transfer energy from the vibrating drum to our ears

Electrical transfer

Energy is transferred when an electrical circuit is complete. A simple circuit may consist
of a battery, lamp and wires. Internal energy stored in the battery is transferred to
moving charged particles in the wire.

Transfer by radiation

Visible light, infrared light, microwaves and radio waves are forms of radiation. They are
carried by waves (although unlike sound, these are not mechanical waves and can
travel through empty space). Electric lamps and burning fuels transfer visible and
infrared light to the surroundings.
Energy is transferred as light from these burning fireworks

Other common transfers

When an object falls the gravitational potential energy it possessed is converted to

kinetic energy. When it has fallen half of the way down, half of the energy will have
been transferred and so on.

Food contains internal energy stored in the bonds between particles. This is sometimes
called chemical energy. This is converted into the energy all living organisms need
during respiration. This conversion is similar to burning, for example wood. Here
internal energy in the wood is converted into heat and light given out by the flames.

Energy transfer diagrams

Energy transfer diagrams may be used to show the locations of energy stores
and energy transfers. For example, consider the energy transfers in this simple
electrical circuit:

We can show the transfers like this:

The battery is a store of internal energy (shown as chemical energy). The energy is
transferred through the wires to the lamp, which then transfers the energy to the
surroundings as light. These are the useful energy transfers - we use electric lamps to
light up our rooms.

But there are also energy transfers that are not useful to us. In the example above, the
lamp also transfers energy to surroundings by radiation as infrared light, which
increases the temperature of the surroundings. If we include this energy transfer
(shown as thermal energy in the diagram), the diagram looks like this:

Conservation of energy

In science, a system is a set of things and the processes that happen in them and
between them. Energy can be stored or transferred, but it cannot be created or
destroyed. This means that the total energy of a system stays the same. The idea that
the total energy has the same value before and after a change is called conservation of
energy.

For example, an electric lamp might transfer radiant energy to the surroundings. Some
of this will be visible light and some will be infrared red light, which increases the
temperature of the surroundings. The amount of energy transferred from the lamp will
be the same as the amount of energy transferred into the lamp because energy can
never be created or destroyed.

Sankey diagrams

You can show energy transfers in a Sankey diagram. In these diagrams, the thicker the
line or arrow, the greater the amount of energy involved.

A Sankey diagram for an electric lamp

Notice that 100 J of electrical energy is transferred to the lamp. Of this, 10 J is
transferred to the surroundings as light energy. The remainder, 90 J (100 J – 10 J) is
transferred to the surroundings as radiant energy that increases the temperature of the
surroundings. Energy can never be created or destroyed so the energy at the beginning
(here 100 J) must equal the total of the energy at the end (here also 100 J).

The energy transfer as light to the surroundings is the useful transfer. The rest is
‘wasted’ - it just makes the surroundings warmer rather than helping you see where
you are going. This ‘wasted’ energy eventually becomes so spread out that it becomes
useless.

Force and Motion

Motion makes the world go 'round. Motion makes the moon go 'round too. In fact,
motion makes lots of things go. When we think of motion we often think of cars,
bicycles, kids running, basketballs bouncing and airplanes flying. But motion is so much
more. Motion is important to our lives and impacts so many things that we do. Motion is
the changing of position or location. But motion requires a force to cause that change.
Let's learn about force and motion and the effects of these physical laws in our world.

What is Force?

Force is just a fancy word for pushing or pulling. If I push on something or pull on it,
then I am applying a force to it. Force makes things move or, more accurately, makes
things change their motion. Two natural forces that we have experienced are the force
of gravity and magnetic forces magnetic forces.
These two forces act at a distance and do not require direct contact between the
objects to function. Gravity produces a force that pulls objects towards each other, like
a person towards the ground. It is the force that keeps the Earth revolving around the
sun and it's what pulls you toward the ground when you trip. See Science Trek's site
on Gravity.

Magnetism produces a force that can either pull opposite ends of two magnets together
or push the matching ends apart. A magnet also attracts objects made of metal.
Types Of Contact Forces

There are 6 kinds of forces which act on objects when they come into contact with one
another. Remember, a force is either a push or pull. The 6 are:

 normal force
 applied force
 frictional force
 tension force
 spring force
 resisting force
Let's investigate how these forces can be seen in our lives.

Normal Force

A book resting on a table has the force of gravity pulling it toward the Earth. But the
book is not moving or accelerating, so there must be opposing forces acting on the
book. This force is caused by the table and is known as the normal force. You can “see”
the normal force in some situations. If you place a thin piece of wood or plastic (a ruler
works) so that it is supported by both ends (by books perhaps) and place a small heavy
object in the center, the piece of wood will bend. Of course it wants to straighten out so
it exerts an upward force on the object. This upward force is the normal force. You can
feel the force yourself if you push down in the center of the piece of wood. The harder
you push, the more the wood bends and the harder it pushes back.
 Applied Force

Applied force refers to a force that is applied to an object such as when a person moves
a piece of furniture across the room or pushes a button on the remote control. A force
is applied.
Frictional Force

Frictional force is the force caused by two surfaces that come into contact with each
other. Friction can be helpful as in the friction that allows a person to walk across the
ground without sliding or it can be destructive such as the friction of moving parts in a
motor that rub together over long periods of time.

Tension Force

Tension force is the force applied to a cable or wire that is anchored on opposite ends
to opposing walls or other objects. This causes a force that pulls equally in both
directions.
 Spring Force

The spring force is the force created by a compressed or stretched spring. Depending

upon how the spring is attached, it can pull or push in order to create a force.

Resisting Forces

Resisting force, like air resistance or friction, change motion. Whether the forces
actually stop or slow something depends upon your point of view. Air friction makes a
leaf travel along in the wind. When you pick up a pencil, it's friction with your fingers
that gets the pencil in motion. In each case, the friction makes the two things (like the
air and the leaf) move together.

References:

http://www.chem4kids.com/files/matter_intro.html
https://ypte.org.uk/factsheets/energy/types-of-energy
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/2826-energy-transfer
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z99jq6f/revision/5
https://www.explainthatstuff.com/motion.html
https://sciencetrek.org/sciencetrek/topics/force_and_motion/facts.cfm