2020 SPM Physics: Chapter 1 Introduction To Physics Scalar and Vector

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2020 SPM PHYSICS

FORM 4 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
4. (a) Consistency is the ability to register

Scalar and Vector the same reading when a measurement
is repeated.
Scalar quantity Vector quantity (b) Consistent but not accurate is the point
- Physical quantities - Physical are close each other but far away from
which has only quantities which the target. A deviation is the
magnitude or value. has both difference between the measured value
magnitude and the mean/average value.
direction. Low deviation => High consistency
E.g.: mass, speed, E.g.: Force,
distance, time & weight, velocity, (c) Relative deviation is calculated to
work Displacement , determine consistency.
Length of pendulum period of (d) Ways to increase consistency:
oscillation i. Avoid parallax error
ii. Use suitable measuring
Measurement instruments for measurements
1. Measurements are trials to determine the 5. Sensitivity is the ability to respond to a
actual value of a physical quantity. small change in the quantity measured.
2. An error is an uncertainly in a 6. Voltmeter
measurement. There are two main types (a) Physical quantity: Volt
of errors. (b) To measure potential difference
Systematic errors Random errors (c) Scale: 0.1V
- Cumulative - Errors due to (d) Do repeated reading of potential
errors that can natural errors or difference, v for each current. How for
be corrected. wrong technique three times & find average value.
- For example : of measurement.
Zero error - For example: Ammeter for connect series to a circuit
Parallax error 1. Physical quantity: Current
2. Smaller division enables to detect a
3. (a) Accuracy is the degree to which the smaller change in current. Therefore,
measurement represents the actual more sensitive. Physical quantity:
value. Current
(b) Ways to increase accuracy: 3. When reading, the eye must be in a
i. Repeat readings and calculate the position where pointer’s image is right
average/mean value behind the pointer.
ii. Avoid parallax (by put a mirror
under the scale of the ammeter) Measuring tape
and zero errors. (able to detect 1. Its is used to measure a long distance
smaller change of current) without the need for accuracy
iii. Use measuring instruments with 2. The accuracy of the measuring tape is 0.1
higher accuracy. cm.
1 WWW.ANDREWCHOO.EDU.MY
Metre Rule
1. The accuracy of the metre rule is 0.1cm
or 1 mm
2. To increase the accuracy of the metre
rule:
a. Avoid parallax error by placing the eyes
in the line with the reading.
b. Avoid zero error by subtracting the zero
error from the reading
Micrometer Screw Gauge
1. The accuracy of the micrometer screw gauge is 0.01 mm.
3. When taking a measurement:

a) The thimble is turned until the anvil and spindle grip the object tight.
b) The ratchet knob is then turned until a 'click' sound is heard to ensure that suitable
pressure is exerted onto the object.
4. The reading on the micrometer screw gauge in Figure above can be obtained as follows:
The reading on the main scale = 12.0 mm
The reading on the thimble scale = 45  0.01 mm = 0.45 mm
Micrometer screw gauge reading

= Main scale reading + Thimble scale reading
= 12.0 mm + 0.45 mm = 12.45 mm
5. The accuracy of the micrometer screw gauge is also affected by zero errors. Before using
it, determine its zero errors, if any.
Positive zero error Negative zero error
6. Precaution:
(i) Position of eye must perpendicular to the scale of the micrometer screw gauge to avoid
parallax error
(ii) Avoid over tightening the aluminum sheet by using the ratchet.
Scientific Investigation
Experiment
1. To investigate the relationship between the length, l of a simple pendulum and the period
of oscillation, T.
(a) Manipulated: Length of pendulum
(b) Responding: Period of oscillation
(c) Constant: The gravitational acceleration / the mass of the bob / number of oscillation
(d) Hypothesis: The length of pendulum increases, the period of oscillation increases.
FORM 4 CHAPTER 2 FORCES & MOTION
Linear Motion
1. Distance (scalar quantity) is the total length of the path moved by an object.
2. Displacement (vector quantity) is the shortest distance between the final positions of an
object to a reference point in a specified direction. [calculate], [area under the graph]
v 2  u 2  2as
3. Speed (scalar quantity) is defined as the rate of change of distance with time.
Dis tan ce(m)
Speed 
Time( s )
4. Velocity (vector quantity) is defined as the rate of change of displacement with time, unit
metre per second (ms 1 ) .
Displacement (m)
velocity 
Time( s )
5. Acceleration (vector quantity) is defined as the rate of change of velocity with time, unit
(ms 2 ) .
FinalVelocity, v  initialVelocity, u
Acceleration, a 
Time.t
6. Modifications that can be made to make a man run faster and achieve maximum
acceleration.
i) Type of attire: light/tight/smooth (reason: less air friction)
ii) Type of shoes: spike shoes/shoes with grooves (reason: better grip, prevent slippery)
iii) Additional equipment: starting block (reason: increase forward force at starting)
7. An object is undergoing a deceleration when it is slowing down. The rate of change of
velocity of the object has a negative value.
8. The ticker time can be used to measure the velocity and acceleration of an object.
9. The ticker timer uses an a.c. 50Hz power supply. Therefore
(a) Makes 50 ticks on the ticker tape in one second.
(b) Makes one tick in 0.02 second.
10. Ticker – Timer
Ticker Tape Pattern Interpretation Graph
Uniform
Uniform speed
distance
or uniform
Direction of motion between two
velocity
consecutive dots
Distance Speed or
Direction of motion between dots velocity
- - moved at a steady speed is increases increases
then decelerated uniformly uniformly
Distance Speed or
between dot velocity
Direction of motion decreases decreases
uniformly uniformly
11.An object which start to move with an initial velocity, u and attains a final velocity, v in
time, t has an acceleration of
v  u  at  Equation (1)
Example 1: Time taken for an object to fall from a height from the moon’s surface is
longer then the earth’s surface. Because g moon < g earth.
12.For motion with constant acceleration:
1 1 2
s (u  v)t  Equation (2) s  ut  at  Equation (3)
2 2
13. Motion graphs
(a) Displacement-time graphs
- zero gradient - Constant gradient

- Object is stationary - Object is moving with uniform velocity
- Increasing gradient - Decreasing gradient

- Object is moving with increasing - Object is moving with decrease velocity
velocity
(b) Velocity-time graphs
- The net force, F=0

- Velocity – ms 1 - The gradient is zero
- Object is stationary - Object is moving with uniform velocity
- Acceleration of the object is zero
- Constant gradient (positive) - Constant gradient (negative)

- Object is moving with uniform - Object is moving the uniform
acceleration deceleration
- Increasing gradient (positive) - Decreasing gradient (positive)

- Object is moving with increasing - Object is moving decreasing
acceleration acceleration
Conservation of Momentum
Momentum 1. The principle of conservation of
1. A fast moving trolley has a higher momentum states that:
resistance to a change in its state of The total momentum of a system is
motion compared to a trolley with a constant, if no external force acts on
lower velocity and it is more difficult to the system.
stop a heavy trolley which is moving at 2. Examples of external force are friction,
the same velocity as an empty trolley. air resistance, etc.
2. The resistance of an object to a change 3. A balloon is tied to a rod when the air is
in its state of motion is known as released, a backward momentum is
momentum. produced.
3. The total momentum before and after the 4. The principle of conservation of
collision is the same. momentum is applied in two situations:
4. The linear momentum, p of an object of (a) Collision (elastic and inelastic)
mass, m, which is moving with a velocity, (b) Explosion
v, is defined as the product of mass and 5. Design of jet engine to be used in air
velocity. craft:
p=mv
5. The unit of momentum is kg ms 1 . Specifications Suitability
6. Momentum is a vector quantity and acts large opening - more air taken in
in the same direction as the velocity. for air intake - the air as fuel
When the positive sign is used to use titanium - strong
represent the right direction, then the left blades - not rust
direction is represented by the negative large i. can burn more fuels
sign and vice versa. combustion ii. more exhaust gas
7. When the velocity increase, momentum chamber produced
increases. iii. larger backward
8. Slower speed limit must be imposed on momentum produced
heavy vehicles. small exhaust - increase velocity of
- Vehicle with high speed produces opening exhaust gases
momentum. - larger backward
- Thus, lower speed will reduce the momentum produced
impact caused by momentum if an
accident happens.
Collisions
Elastic collisions Inelastic collisions
1
v v
2
After collision, the objects move separately. After collision, the objects move together with
a common velocity.
Momentum Momentum
is conserved.
Total energy is conserved. Total energy
Kinetic energy Kinetic energy is not conserved.
m Au A  mB u B  m A v A  mB v B m Au A  mB u B  m A  mB v
EXPERIMENT
Aim :To verify the principle of conservation of momentum in elastic and inelastic
collisions
Problem : Is momentum conserved in elastic and inelastic collisions?
Hypothesis :Momentum is conserved in elastic and inelastic collisions.
Apparatus/Materials
Ticker-timer, 12 V a.c. power supply, ticker tape, 4 trolleys of equal mass, track, spring-
loaded piston and a wooden block.
Variables:
(a) Manipulated: Mass of trolley, m
(b) Responding: Velocity of trolley, v
(A) Elastic collision
Arrangement of Apparatus
Procedure
1. The apparatus is arranged as shown in Figure 2.13.
2. The track is adjusted until it is friction-compensated.
3. Trolley A with a spring-loaded piston is placed at the higher end of the runway while
trolley B is placed at the middle of the runway. Ticker tapes are attached to both trolleys.
4. When the ticker-timer is switched on, trolley A is pushed slightly so that it moves down
the track with a uniform velocity and collides with trolley B.
5. After the collision, the trolleys move separately and the ticker tapes are used to calculate
the velocities of trolleys A and B before and after the collision.
6. Assuming that the mass of each trolley is 1 unit, the momentums before and after the
collision are calculated.
7. The experiment is repeated using:
(a) 1 trolley to collide with 2 stationary stacked trolleys
(b) 2 stacked trolleys to collide with 1 stationary trolley
Results
Discussion
1. The spring-loaded piston is used to separate the trolleys after collision.
2. In practice, the collision is not a perfectly elastic collision as part of the kinetic energy is
converted into sound or heat when the trolleys collide.
3. Table 2.4 shows that the total momentum before collision equals the total momentum
after collision.
Conclusion
The momentum is conserved in an elastic collision. The hypothesis is accepted.
(B) Inelastic collision

Procedure
1. Some plasticine is attached to both trolleys as shown in Figure 2.15.
2. A ticker tape is attached to trolley A only.
3. When the ticker-timer is switched on, trolley A is pushed slightly so that it moves down
the track with a uniform velocity and collides with trolley B.
4. After the collision, the trolleys move together and the ticker tape is used to calculate the
initial velocity of trolley A before the collision and the common velocity of combined
trolleys A and B after the collision.
5. Assuming that the mass of each trolley is 1 unit, the momentums before and after the
collision are calculated.
6. The experiment is repeated using:
(a) 1 trolley to collide with 2 stationary stacked trolleys
(b) 2 stacked trolleys to collide with 1 stationary trolley
Results
1.
2. Tabulation of data:
Discussion
1 The plasticines are used to attach the trolleys after collision.
2 In practice, the collision is not a perfectly inelastic collision as part of the kinetic energy
is converted into sound or heat when the trolleys collide.
3 Table 2.5 shows that the total momentum before collision equals the total momentum
after collision.
Conclusion
Momentum is conserved in an inelastic collision. The hypothesis is accepted.
Explosions 1. Before explosion, both the bullet and the
Example 1 rifle are at rest. The total momentum is
[how rocket is launched] zero.
2. When the rifle is fired, the bullet which
has mass and moves with a velocity,
produces a forward momentum. This
causes the rifle to recoil backwards with a
backward momentum which has the same
momentum as the bullet.
Therefore, the total momentum after the
explosion is still zero and it can be
1. A balloon filled with air, moves upwards written as:
with a certain momentum when air is m1 v1 + m 2 v 2 = 0
released from the bottom of the balloon.
The air which has mass and moves with a Rearranging the formula gives:
velocity, produces a backward momentum m1 v1 = – m 2 v 2
which then causes the balloon to move
where the negative sign indicates the
upwards with the same momentum.
opposite direction. Since the magnitudes
2. The total momentum before the explosion
are equal, the equation can be written as:
is zero as the velocities of the balloon and
m1 v1 = – m 2 v 2
air are zero.
3. The total momentum after the explosion
is still zero as the upward momentum is Other applications of explosions are rocket
equal to the downward momentum. propulsion and jet propulsion for
4. Therefore, the principle of conservation airplanes.
of momentum is obeyed.
Example 2 Example 3
1. A running athlete
2. Momentum of the hand moving
backwards = momentum of the body
moving forward
Question
The masses of the bow and arrow in Figure
are 10 kg and 1 kg respectively. When the
string of the bow is released, the arrow
moves forward with a velocity of 20ms 1 .
Calculate the recoil velocity of the bow.
Using m 1 v 1 + m 2 v 2 = 0,
(10 kg) v 1 + (1 kg) (20ms ) = 0
1
The recoil velocity of the bow is 2 ms 1 ,
where the negative sign indicates that it is
(10 kg) v 1 = –20 kg ms 1 moving to the right, which is in the opposite
v 1 = –2 ms 1 direction to the arrow.
EXPERIMENT
Aim : To verify the principle of conservation of momentum in explosions
Problems : Is momentum conserved in an explosion?
Hypothesis : Momentum is conserved in an explosion.
Apparatus/Materials
4 trolleys of equal mass, wooden blocks, metre rule and hammer.
Variables
(a) Manipulated : Mass of trolley, m
(b) Responding : Velocity of trolley (represented by the distance traveled by the trolley)
Procedure
1. The apparatus is arranged as shown in Figure 2.21.
2. Trolleys A and B are placed in contact to each other on a smooth surface and the spring-
loaded piston in trolley A is compressed.
3. The release pin on trolley A is tapped lightly to release the spring-loaded piston which
separates the trolleys. The trolleys collide with the wooden blocks.
4. The experiment is repeated and the positions of the wooden blocks are adjusted so that
both the trolleys collide with them at the same time. The distances d1 and d 2 are
measured and recorded.
5. The experiment is repeated using
(a) 1 trolley with 2 stacked trolleys,
(b) 1 trolley with 3 stacked trolleys.
Results
Before
After explosion
explosion
Velocity of Final total
Initial total Mass of trolley Mass of trolley Velocity of
trolley A, momentum,
momentum A, m A B, m B trolley B, d B
dA m A  d A   m B d B
0 1 1 0
0 1 2 0
0 3 1 0
Discussion
1. Total momentum before explosion is zero because both trolleys are stationary.
2. Total momentum after explosion = m A (-d A ) + m B d B
3. Table 2.6 shows that m A (-d A ) + m B d B = 0. Therefore:
Total momentum before explosion = Total momentum after explosion
Conclusion
Momentum is conserved in an explosion. The hypothesis is accepted.
Forces in Equilibrium
1. When forces are in equilibrium or when
forces are balanced, the net force or
resultant force, FR is zero. The object
at this moment will either be stationary /
at rest or moving with uniform
velocity (zero acceleration).
2. Normal reaction, R and the weight, W
(mg) are acting in opposite directions.
so, the resultant force is the subtraction
of the two forces.
3. An example of forces in equilibrium:
(a) A television placed on a table.
1 2
S  ut  at
2
When the forces are in equilibrium: (c) A car descending a hill at constant
Normal reaction force, R velocity
= Weight of television, W (= m£) (d) A lamp is hanging at rest in hall
(e) A ship floating at rest in the sea
4.
i. The diagram is drawn to a suitable scale.

ii. F1 is drawn first, followed by F2.
- car moves with constant velocity when iii. The resultant force is then drawn from
energy thrust equal to drag the beginning of F1 to the end of F2
- car moves with acceleration when iv. The value of the resultant force is
engine thrust larger than drag, car travel measured from the length of AC and the
with increasing speed direction of the resultant force is CAB.
(b) Parallelogram method
When the forces start from the same
Addition / Combination of Forces and
point, a vector diagram is drawn to
Resultant Force
obtain the resultant force, FR.
1. When two forces are parallel to each
other, the addition can be done by simple
arithmetic.
a. Forces acting in the same direction
i. A suitable scale is used in this drawing

and both F1 and F2 are drawn from the
same point.
ii. Complete the drawing using a pair of
b. Forces acting in opposite directions compasses and then draw the diagonal of
the parallelogram.
iii. The diagonal represents the magnitude
and direction of the resultant force, FR.
4. When two forces are perpendicular to
The resultant force is in the direction of each other, Pythagoras' theorem and the
the larger force. parallelogram method can be applied to
2. Frictional Force obtain the resultant force.
is force which opposes movement.
3. When two forces are neither parallel nor
perpendicular to each other, there are two
methods to calculate the resultant force.
(a) Triangle method
When the forces do not start from the
same point, a force diagram can be Resolution of Forces
drawn to obtain the resultant force, FR. A 1. The resultant force is found by
force diagram is a representation of combining the forces. The reverse
forces with their respective process where a single force is split into
magnitudes and directions. two components is known as the
resolution of forces.
2. The two components of force are the
vertical force, Fy and the horizontal force,
Fx. They are perpendicular to each other
in a parallelogram.
3. Simple trigonometry is applied to obtain
the values of Fx and Fy .
Elasticity
a. A property of matter that enables an
object to return to its original shape and
size after the force acting on it is
removed.
b. Hooke's law states that:
The change in length of a spring is
directly proportional to the force
applied to the spring without
exceeding the elastic limit of the
spring.
c. As shown in Experiment 2.7, when the
weight of the load increased, the change
in length of the spring also increases
A boy in a lift when the load is removed, the spring
1. When the lift moves up with acceleration, returns to its original length and shape.
the normal reaction is greater than his d. When extra loads are continuously added
weight. R > W, W = mg, R – W = ma to the spring, there will be a stage where
2. There is a resultant force acting upwards, the spring does not return to its original
F = ma due to its acceleration. length when all the loads are removed.
3. Normal reaction is equal to the sum of There is a permanent extension to the
the boy’s weight and the resultant force, spring where the elastic limit of the load
R=mg + ma. has be exceeded.
4. When the lift moves down, weight e. The elastic limit of a spring is the
reduces. maximum force that be applied to a
5. Because W > R or R = W – ma. spring before the spring ceases to be
elastic spoils.
Aeroplane f. Figure shows a graph of applied force
1. Flying horizontally with increasing against extension of a spring (F-x graph).
velocity: thrust > Drag The straight line passing through the
Lawnmower origin shows that the applied force is
1. Big size cutter blade (surface area more directly proportional to the extension of
larger) the spring. Hooke's law is obeyed.
2. Downward force greater
Modifications to avoid string from being

broken
a)Type of material of spring: Nylon (reason:
strong material)
b) Angle of pulling force, F from vertical
line, :Use smaller angle (reason: reduce
magnitude of tension of the spring) g. After the elastic limit, the graph curves
where the applied force does not vary
directly to the extension of the spring and
Hooke's law is no longer obeyed. When
the load is removed, the spring is not able Ep=
1 2
kx
to return to its original state. 2
h. Based on the straight line in the F- x k. The spring constant, k is a measure of the
graph in Figure 2.59, elasticity or the stiffness of the spring.
Fx l. The bigger the spring constant, the higher
F the stiffness of the spring.
 F = kx or k= x
m. To investigate about stretching of a
spring by support different of mass:
where k is a constant known as spring
(a) Manipulated: Mass of an object
constant and the unit of k is N m-1.
i. From Hooke's law: F = kx (b) Responding: Length of spring/
Extension
Applying y = mx + c,  equation of straight line
(c) Constant: Diameter of spring
k = m n. Velocity does not depend on mass.
= gradient of the F-x graph Velocity depends on height.
Potential energy = kinetic energy
Hence, the gradient of the F-x graph
represents the spring constant, k.
j. The area under the straight line of the F-x
graph represents the elastic potential v = 2 gh
energy, E p . q. The oscillation is clamped due to the
1 resistant affair.
Area under the graph, A = E p = Fx
2
1
Substituting F = kx, E p = (kx)(x)
2
r. Factors that Affecting the Elasticity / Stiffness of a Spring [Hooke’s Law]

Factor F-x graph Conclusion
(a) Type of material
Steel spring, P is
stiffer.
(b) Length of spring

Shorter spring, R
is stiffer.
(c) Diameter of the coil of spring/ Shorter
spring, R is stiffer. Spring T with
smaller diameter of
coil is stiffer.
(d) Diameter of wire/ thickness of spring

Spring V with larger
diameter of wire
(thicker) is stiffer.
(e) Arrangement of springs

Springs arranged in
parallel, X are stiffer.
o. Modification to baby cradle:

i. Support rod should be strengthened
- support bigger weight
ii. Spring strengthened by using stainless steel
- support bigger weight withstand rust, last longer
- Spring constant must be medium, cannot be too high or too low
iii. Higher spring constant lead to its comfort due to high frequency of oscillation
- too low cause greater extension of spring, not safe
Aim: To investigate the relation between the period of oscillation of a loaded spring and the
mass of its load.
Manipulated variable: Mass of the load
Responding variable : Period of oscillation
Constant variable : The type of spring/spring constant
List of apparatus and materials: Retort stand and clamp, spring, slotted weights,
stopwatch.
Arrangement of apparatus
(e) Procedure:
i. Measure the time of 10 oscillations using a stopwatch
and the initial load of 50 g.
ii. Calculate the period of one oscillation.
iii. Repeat the experiment four limes using loads of 100 g,
150 g, 200 g, and 250 g.
Tabulation of data
Load mass, m/g Time for 10 oscillations/s Period of oscillation, T/s
50
100
150
200
250
(g) Analysis of data
h) Drawing a conclusion : The period

of oscillation. (J) increases when the
mass of the load (m) increases
Experiment:
Aim:
To investigate the relationship between the extension of a spring and the stretching force
Problem:
Azizi and Kamaruzzaman, the sons of Puan Halimah, who are 1 year old and 3 years old are
sleeping in their cradles. The spring for Kamaruzzaman’s cradle extend longer. What is the
relationship between extension of spring and stretching force?
Inference:
The extension of the spring depends on the weight or force acting on it.
Hypothesis:
The extension of the spring is directly proportional to the stretching force.
Variables:
Manipulated : Weight of load, F
Responding : Spring extension, x
Fixed : Force constant of the spring, k
Operational definition:
The weight of the load represents the force which stretches the spring. The weight of the load
is given by the formula, F = mg, where m is the mass of the load (in kg) and g = 10 N kg -1.
Apparatus and Materials:
Spring, pin, slotted weight, weight holder, retort stand with clamp, metre rule and plasticine.
Arrangement of Apparatus:
Procedure:
1. The metre rule is clamped vertically to the retort stand, with its ‘0’ mark at the top.
2. The spring is suspended from the clamp.
3. The pin is attached to the bottom end of the spring with plasticine.
4. The initial position of the pin, lo is noted.
5. A weight holder of mass 50 g is hooked onto the bottom of the spring. A slotted weight
of mass 50g is added to the weight holder. The total weight acting on the spring is noted
and the new position of the pin, l is recorded.
6. The extension of the spring is calculated from the formula: x = l - lo.
7. Step 5 is repeated with the addition of 50 g each time until a maximum of 300 g. All the
respective readings are noted recorded.
Results:
Experiment data:
Original position of the spring = lo cm
Load, Stretching force, Position of pin, Spring extension,
m (kg) F = mg (N) l (cm) x = l - lo (cm)
0.10 1.0
0.15 1.5
0.20 2.0
0.25 2.5
0.30 3.0
Graph of spring extension, x against stretching force, F is drawn.
Discussion:
The straight line in the x-F graph passes through the origin. This shows that the extension of
the spring, x is directly proportional to the stretching force, F.
Conclusion:
Hypothesis is valid.
FORM 4 CHAPTER 3 FORCES & PRESSURE
Pressure in liquid - the higher the water pressure acting on

1. Factor that affect: the air bubble, the lower the volume of
(a) Depth air bubble
- water spurts out fastest and furthest (b) Density
from the lower hole showing that - liquid pressure increases with density
pressure in a liquid increases with - example: water spurts out fastest than
depth. palm oil or salt solution.
(c) Direction
- pressure in a liquid at the same depth 2. When the toothpaste is being squeezed,
acts equally in all direction. the force acting over area of contact
- pressure at the same depth acts equally produces pressure. Pressure is
in all direction transmitted to the other end and pushes
the toothpaste out.
2. Pressure in liquid, P = hpg .
Basic Hydraulic System
Thus, P  h. 1 Figure 3.22 shows a basic hydraulic
system where a small force, F1 is applied
on cylinder P with a smaller surface
area,A1 to produce a large force,F2 on
cylinder Q with a larger surface area ,A2.
2 Pressure due to the force, F1 acting on the
smaller cylinder P is transmitted by the
3.
liquid to the larger cylinder Q. The
transmitted pressure is constant.
3 The hydraulic system must not contain
any air bubbles as these will reduce the
efficiency of the system because part of
the applied force will be used to
compress the air bubbles.
Observation:
Pressure in liquid at A, B, C, D are the
same.
Conclusion:
Pressure in a liquid is not affected by the 4 The equation shows that when the
shape or size of the container. surface area A is larger, the force F o
2 2
larger and vice versa.
4. Gasses can be compressed because 5 When loads are placed on the pistons, the
(a) molecules are further apart forces, F1 and F2 are by the weights of
(b) forces between molecules are weak the loads in the equation above.
5. The Brownian motion of smoke particles
is due to the smoke particles are being
randomly hit by air molecules.
6. Piston moved slowly down cause
pressure of gas increases because the
molecules collide more often with the
walls
Applying Pascal’s Principle

Pascal’s principle states that pressure Hydraulic jacks
exerted on an enclosed liquid is 1 A hydraulic jack can be used to lift a
transmitted equally throughout the liquid. heavy load using a small force.
1. Pascal’s principle is applied in hydraulic 2 When small force is applied to pull the
systems. handle, valve A closes and forces the
hydraulic fluid towards valve B. The
pressure is transmitted from the small Specification Explanation
cylinder to the large cylinder by the fluid Small cross- Produce large
and this result in a large force moving the section area of pressure by a small
load upwards. The handle can be moved master piston force
up and down to lift the load higher.
3 The release valve can be opened to allow Large cross- Produce large force
the fluid to flow back to the buffer tank section area of to overcome the
in order to lower the large piston. slave piston load
4 Properties of hydraulic jack: Use steel to Strong and will not
(a) ratio of surface area of large piston manufacture fluid rust
to small piston large – to produce a transmission pipe
bigger output force High boiling point Not vaporize easily
(b) use oil – does not evaporate easily of hydraulic fluid
(c) use steel for transmission pipe – long
lasting
Hydraulic brakes
(d) big liquid reservoir – to occupy lots
of liquid
5 The hydraulic fluid used must not
contain any air bubbles to ensure that the
magnitude of the pressure in the jack is
constant.
1. When the brake pedal is pressed,

pressure is transmitted by the brake fluid
from the master cylinder to the pistons of
the front a rear brakes.
2. The pressure causes the pistons to push a
pair of brake pad against the surfaces of
6 Specification of suitable liquid used as the disc brake and the brake drums. The
a hydraulic fluid: friction applied on the brakes will cause
i. High boiling point – so that the the vehicle to slow down and stop.
liquid does not boil easily 3. The return spring is used to restore the
ii. High specific heat capacity – so that brake discs to their original position
it does not becomes hot easily when brake pedal is released.
iii. Low density – so that hydraulic jack 4. Concept: pressure is transmitted
not heavy uniformly from the small surface area (A)
iv. Low rate of vaporization – liquid of the big cylinder, the output force is
will not vaporize easily bigger. F=PA
7 Specification of hydraulic system to be
used to unload sand from tipper of a Hydraulic pumps
truck: 1. Hydraulic pumps are used to raise
vehicles in motor workshop.
5. Heavier load can be lifted by replacing
the small surface area piston with a
bigger radius/surface area piston.
2. The compressed air from the compressor

applies a force on the small cylinder and
produces a pressure.
3. The pressure is transmitted by the oil to
the large cylinder to produce a force
large enough to lift a car.
4. Similarity: Equal pressure at both pistons.
Pressure depends its depth

Aim: To investigate the relationship
between depth and pressure in a liquid
Manipulated variable: Depth of liquid
Responding variable: Pressure in liquid
Constant variable: Density of water
Apparatus and material:
Balion skin, rubber tube, thistle funnel,
tall cylinder, rubber band, retort stand and
clamp, meter rule, manometer, water and
color liquid
Procedure:
1. Apparatus is set as shown in the above diagram.
2. The tall cylinder is filled with water till about 1/4 full.
3. The funnel with the membrane facing downwards is pushed into the cylinder to a depth, d
of 5 cm
4. The corresponding difference in coloured liquid level, h of the manometer is measured
~with a metre rule and its reading, is recorded
5. Repeat the experiment at least 4 times
6. Steps 3 to 4m repeated with d=10.0cm, 1 5.0 cm, 20.0 cm and 25.0cm.
Result:
Depth, d (cm) Difference in coloured liquid level, h(cm)
Archimedes’ Principle
1 Archimedes’ principle states that for a body wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, the
upward buoyant force acting on the body is equal to the weight of the fluid it
displaces.
(a) An object that floats in a liquid has a density less than or equal to the density of the
liquid.
(b) An object will sink if the density of the object is greater than the density of the
liquid. This is because its weight is greater than the upthrust that acts on it.
2 Buoyant force is the upward force resulting from an object being wholly or partially
immersed in a fluid.
m
3 Density: p  , unit gcm3 .
v
4 Density is the mass per volume of the material.
5 Steam has lower density than water.
Water Steam
Molecules of H 2 O are close together Molecules of H 2 O are far apart.
For a fixed volume, steam has a lower number of molecules or lower mass. So the density is lower.
6 9 Weight of iceberg floating on the surface

of the sea is equal to the weight of sea
water displaced.
10 Size of a hot air balloon affect the
height of air balloon.
11 Submarine has a ballast tank. Therefore,
water is filled in the density/weight of the
submarine diagram with water in the
ballast tank.
12 The submarine sinks into the water when
its density is bigger than the density of
water / the weight of submarine is bigger
Buoyant force = 10 N – 8 N than the buoyant force.
Daya tujahan = 2 N
Weight of water displaced = 2 N
Berat air tersesar
Conclusion/Kesimpulan:
Buoyant force = Weight of water
displaced
Daya tujahan = Berat air tersesar
7 A boat sinks more in the river than in the
sea water. Therefore, volume of river
water displaced by the boat is more than
volume of sea water displaced by the 13 Weight of water displaced = weight of
boat. the submarine + weight of water in the
8 The boat floats because the weight is ballast tank
being balanced by the buoyant force. 14 Design of a submarine:
Suggestion Reason Aspects Explanation
Streamlined shape Reduce water Nylon material Strong, lighter
resistance 2 or more burners Decrease density of
Used strong Withstand increasing air
material pressure underwater Big size of Increase the buoyant
Equip with ballast Pump in water to balloon force
tank submerge and pump Rattan basket Lighter, small mass
out water to float 2 or more number Supply enough fuel
Divide into Protects the crews of gas tank to be burnt
smaller from drowning if Hydrogen / Light gas
compartments leakage happens helium gas
with strong doors
Equip with Provide air to the Working principle of hydrometer
oxygen tanks crew
Big turbine Produce bigger thrust
to accelerate faster
15 A balloon filled with helium gas able to

rise but not balloon filled with air:
a) The mass of balloon filled with helium

gas > mass of balloon filled with air
b) Buoyant force acting on the balloon
with air > buoyant force acting on
balloon filled with helium gas 1 The bulb of the hydrometer is filled with
c) Weight of balloon filled with air = lead shots to ensure the hydrometer floats
buoyant force that acting on it upright in a liquid.
d) No resultant force acting on balloon 2 A small stem is used on the upper part to
with air have a bigger interval of scale.
3 By using a big bulb and a longer stem,
16 Balloon [filled with gas] rises up when the hydrometer does not sink fully /
releases them: floats easier in a low density liquid.
a) because buoyant force acting on it, 4 The hydrometer is floated in alcohol and
due to the surrounding air greater than the liquid level at the stem is marked.
its weight The liquid level at the stem is equal to
b) it descends when the buoyant force is the density of alcohol.
less than its weight 5 The hydrometer is floated in carbon
c) weight = buoyant force, remain tetrachloride solution / sea water and the
stationary in air liquid level at the stem is equal to the
density of carbon tetrachloride solution /
17 Design of hot air balloon to rise at high sea water.
altitude and safe: [design of a gas 6 Calibrate the stem using the upper and
balloon used for advertisement] lower level of density.
7 Length of hydrometer longer submerged
in oil than water because density of oil
lower than water.
8 Modification to the boat:
a) Bigger size – to increases buoyant
force
b) Water proof material – to avoid water
leakage
c) High rigidly material – to avoid shape
charging of the boat
d) The higher the density, the greater the
buoyant force.
e) The greater the buoyant force the
smaller the apparent weight.
9. Apparent weight is actual weight minus

the buoyant force.
Experiment:
Aim: Hypothesis: Apparatus and
To investigate the relationship The more an object is materials:
between volume of an object immersed in water, the higher Spring balance, cylindrical
immersed in water and is the buoyant force acting on steel rod, water, beaker,
buoyant force act on it it. retort stand
Variables: Procedure:
Manipulated: 1. The arrangement of apparatus is set up.
Volume of water 2. By using a spring balance, the weight of the steel rod in the air is
Responding: measured. Weight = W1N
Reading of spring 3. The rod is then lowered into the water until the volume of rod
balance/buoyant immersed in water is 50 cm3.
force 4. The reading of spring balance, W N is recorded.
Constant: Type 5. The buoyant force, F can be calculated using the formula: F = W1 –
of cylindrical W
steel rod used 6. The experiment is repeated with volume of the rod immersed, V =
100 cm3, 150 cm3, 200 cm3 and 250 cm3.
Arrangement of apparatus: Tabulation of data:
Analysis of data:
Graph of F against V
FORM 4 CHAPTER 4 HEAT
Understanding the Gas Laws
Boyle’s law
1. Boyle’s law states that the pressure of a
fixed mass of gas is inversely
proportional to its volume at a constant 2. When air is compressed, kinetic energy
temperature. of gas particles remains unchanged.
1 3. Reason: Temperature of gas is constant,
P
V thus kinetic energy same.
or PV = constant Example:
P1 V1 = P 2 V 2 1. A balloon immersed into the water.
(a) The pressure of the air in the balloon syringe is 100 cm3 at atmospheric
is balanced by the atmospheric pressure.
pressure & the rubber material of the 3. The other end of the rubber tube is
balloon connected to a Bourdon gauge and the
(b) The deeper the balloon, the greater pressure of the air in the syringe is read
the water pressure from the gauge.
(c) According to Boyle’s an increases in 4. The piston of the syringe is pushed in
pressure will cause a decreases in until the enclosed volume is 90 cm3. The
volume pressure on the Bourdon gauge is
(d) Hence, size balloon is reduced recorded.
2. A weight needed to submerge the balloon 5. Step 4 is repeated for enclosed volumes
in water of 80 cm3,70 cm3, and 60 cm3.
(a) Water exerts an upthrust on the 6. A graph of P against 1/V is drawn.
balloon
(b) As balloon filled with air, its weight Results:
is less than the upthrust exerted on it
Experiment: Boyle's law

Aim: To investigate the relationship
between the pressure, P and volume, V of air
at a constant temperature.
Hypothesis: The volume of the balloon will
decrease. The volume of a gas varies
inversely with its pressure.
Variables:
Manipulated: Volume of air in a syringe, V
Responding: Pressure of trapped air, P
Fixed: Mass and temperature of air inside
a syringe (an airtight syringe is used)
Operational definition: The pressure is
read from a Bourdon gauge. The volume of
the air is read from the scale on the syringe.
Apparatus/Materials:
A100 cm3 syringe, rubber tube, and Bourdon
gauge.
Procedure:
1. The apparatus is set up as shown.
2. A rubber tube is connected to the nozzle
of the syringe. The piston of the syringe
is adjusted until the volume of air in the
Pressure Law Charles’ Law
1. Pressure law states that the pressure of a 1. Charles’ law states that the volume of a
fixed mass of gas is directly proportional fixed mass of gas is directly proportional
to its absolute temperature (in Kelvin) at to its absolute temperature (in kelvin) at a
a constant volume. \ constant pressure.
2. When a bottle containing hot air is put VT
into basin of ice (temp decrease), the hot or
V
= constant
air condenses and causes low pressure in T
the bottle. The atmospheric pressure V1 V
= 2
outside is greater and presses the bottle T1 T 2
inwards.
PT
P
or = constant
T
P1 P
= 2 The absolute temperature refers to 0 K or
T1 T2
-273 °C, which measured on the absolute
temperature, scale (Kelvin temperature
scale) and used in studies on gas laws.
2. Temperature increases, kinetic energy
increases.
3. When force decreases, the volume of the
P1 P2 gas increases at a constant temperature
Calculation: 
T1  273 T2  273
Experiment:
Aim:
To investigate the relationship between the temperature, T and the volume, V of a gas at
constant pressure
Problem Statement:
What is the relationship between the volume and temperature of a fixed mass of gas at
constant
Hypothesis:
Volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant increases when its temperature is increased.
Variables:
(a) Manipulated : Temperature of trapped air
(b) Responding : Length of air column
I Fixed : Atmospheric pressure and mass
Materials:
capillary tube, tall beaker, thermometer, Bunsen Turner, tripod stand, wire gauze, retort
stand, mercury , concentrated sulphuric acid, stirrer, ruler, and ice.
Procedures:
1. The air sample under investigation is trapped inside the capillary tube by a bead of
concentrated sulphuric acid which acts as an index.
2. The capillary tube is mounted on a 30-cm ruler such that the bottom end of the column of
air is aligned with the ‘0’ mark on the ruler.
3. Water and ice are poured into the beaker until the column of air is fully immersed under
water. The water is stirred until the water temperature falls to 0 °C. The length of the air
column, x and the temperature, 0 is recorded.
4. The water is heated and continuously stirred. The values of x and 8 are recorded for each
temperature increment of 10 °C until a temperature of 90 °C is reached.
5. A graph of length of air column, x against temperature, 0 is drawn.
Experimental data:
p. (a) A graph of x against 8 is shown in Figure 4.42. length of air column, x
Discussion
The graphs show that the length of the air column, (volume of gas) is proportional to the
absolute temperature, 8 (K).
Conclusion : The volume of a fixed mass of gas a pressure is directly proportional to that
temperature (in kelvin) of the gas. The hypothesis is valid.
Heating Curves
Figure shows the heating curve of a substance which is heated at fixed rate
Assumption: no heat loss to surrounding.
*Latent heat of fusion is absorbed during the process of melting

* The heat is used to break the bond between molecules.
*At stage B to C, effect of heat
*change of state taking place (BC) & (DE)
Cooling Curves
The figure shows the cooling curve of a substance which is cooled at a fixed rate.
- The transfer of heat during changes of phase does not cause a change in temperature. However,
when there is no change of phase, the heat absorbed increases the temperature of the substance
being heated.
- The heat absorbed or released when a substance undergoes a change in phase without a change
in temperature is the latent heat.
FORM 4 CHAPTER 5 LIGHT
1. Reflection of Light on Curved Mirrors

Curved Mirror
Concave mirror (Converging) Convex mirror (Diverging)
Differences
- Curves towards object. - Curves away from object.
- Rays parallel to the principle axis converge - Rays parallel to the principal axis diverge
at the real focal point, F which is situated in from the virtual focal point, F which is
front of the mirror situated behind the mirror.
- Positive focal length Example: +15cm - Negative focal length Example: -15cm
2. Common terminology
i. Principal axis A line which passes through the centre of curvature, C and the
pole of the curved mirror, P.
ii. Pole of mirror, P The centre point of a curved mirror.
iii. Centre of curvature, C The geometric centre of a curved mirror.
iv. Focal point, F A point where rays parallel to the principal axis converge or
diverge from.
v. Focal length, f The distance between the focal point, F and the pole of mirror,
P.
vi. Radius of curvature The distance between the centre of curvature, C and the pole
r=2f of mirror, P.
vii. Object distance, u The object distance between the object and the pole of mirror,
P.
viii. Image distance, v The distance between the image and the pole of mirror, P.
3. Light rays travelling from glass to air by different incident angles.

(a) Critical angle is the angle of incidence (in denser medium) for when the angle
refraction, r=900
(b) Angle of incidence is angle between the incident ray and the normal
uv
4. Thin lenses, f 
uv
Ray Diagrams
1. A ray diagram is used to determine the characteristics and positions of images for various
object distances.
Concave mirror
A ray parallel to the principal A ray through F is A ray through C is

axis is reflected to pass reflected parallel to the reflected along its own
through F. principal axis. path.
Convex mirror
A ray parallel to the principal A ray towards F is A ray towards C is

axis is reflected as if it came reflected parallel to the reflected along its own
from F. principal axis. path.
2. A real image is formed when two or more real rays originating from a point of the object
intersect. A real image is formed in front of a mirror.
3. A virtual image is formed when two or more virtual extended rays intersect. A virtual
image is formed behind a mirror & cannot be formed on a scene.
Images formed by a concave mirror

Location of object Position of image Characteristics of image
The object is located beyond C
• Inverted
In front of the mirror • Reduced in size (smaller
between the centre of than object)
curvature and the focal point • Real (image can appear
on a screen)
The object is located at C
• Inverted
• Same size as object
In front of the mirror at
• Real
the centre of curvature
• Plane mirror
The object is located between
C and F
• Inverted
In front of the mirror beyond • Bigger than object
the centre of curvature • Real (image can appear
on a screen)
The object is located at F Light rays travel in parallel • Upright

after reflection. Image is • Bigger than object
formed at infinity. • Virtual (image cannot
appear on a screen)
The object is located in front Behind the mirror • Upright

of F • Bigger than object
• Virtual
* The higher the curvature, the shorter the focal length. The shorter the focal length, the
smaller the image.
Images formed by a convex lens *Image distance * Drawing
Position of object Ray diagram Characteristics of image
 plane mirror
* The bigger the object distance, the smaller the image distance. The bigger the image
distance, the bigger the size of the image.
Imaged formed by a convex mirror Satellite dish

- A concave parabolic dish is used by radio
and television stations, to focus and
transmit radio waves.
Reflector Of torchlight
1. light bulb is placed at the focal point of
- The characteristics of the images formed: the concave parabolic mirror to produce
virtual, upright, diminished and formed parallel light rays.
behind the mirror for all positions of 2. The parallel rays will maintain a uniform
object. intensity for a greater distance.
Widening the Field of View
Application and Construction of 1. The figures (a) and (b) show the fields of
Apparatus using Concave and Convex view for a plane mirror and a convex
Mirrors mirror.
Make-up mirror
1. The user must be positioned between the
focal point and the pole of the wide-
aperture concave mirror. The radius of
curvature of the concave mirror is large.
2. The image produced is virtual, upright
and magnified. 2. The field of view of the convex mirror is
wider than that of plane mirror and this
characteristic makes the convex mirror (turbulent) in the Earth’s atmosphere.
suitable to be used as rear-view mirrors The stars do not twinkle when observed
in motor vehicles. in outer space.
3. Convex mirrors are also positioned at 2. The densities or refractive indices
sharp corners of roads enable drivers of the layers of the atmosphere are
from opposite directions to see oncoming varied by the moving air and when light
cars on blind sides of the corners. rays from the stars travel into the
4. In supermarkets, the convex mirrors are atmosphere, their paths are refracted
hung at the corner provide a wider field rapidly.
of view of the activities in the 3. As a result, the light enters the eye at one
supermarket. moment and does not at the next moment.
This constant but random change
Effects of Refraction of Light produces the twinkling of stars.
Bending of a pencil 4. The Moon and planets do not twinkle as
1. Figure 5.21 shows a partially immersed their apparent sizes are not affected by
pencil which appears to bend at the water the small fluctuations of the atmospheric
surface from position O to position I. refractions. Therefore there is no effect to
2. The light rays OA and OB are refracted the amount of light enters the eyes.
away from the normal when the light
rays travel from water to air. Understanding Total Internal Reflection
3. The observer views the light rays OA and 1. Total internal reflection is a reflection of
OB to originate from position I where the light rays at the boundary of two
submerged part of the pencil appears mediums when the incident angle, I is
position RI. Therefore, the pencil appears large than the critical angle, c of the
to bend. optically denser medium.
2. The critical angle, c of a medium is the

maximum incident angle before total
Spear a fish internal reflection occurs (when the
1. Spear did not hit the fish as refracted angle =90°).
a) Speed of light increases when 3. The boundary of the two mediums acts as
propagate from water to air a perfect plane mirror.
b) Light ray is refracted away from the 4. Two conditions for total internal
normal reflection to happen:
c) Image of fish is located near to the (a) The incident angle, I > critical angle,
water surface area c.
2. The man should aim lower or hit (b) angle of reflection = angle of
perpendicularly to water surface incidence
(c) The light travels from an optically
The twinkling of the stars denser medium to and optically less
1. The stars twinkle because we view them dense medium.
through thick layers moving air
Critical Angle, c and Total Internal Reflection
The table shows four situations in which a light passes from water (optically denser) to air
(optically less dense). *angle of refraction *position of image
* When the speed decreases, the light ray bends towards the normal.
 r<i
 water more dense than air
Inference: The angle of refraction depends on angle of the incidence.

Hypothesis: When the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction
increases
Relationship between Critical Angle, c

and the Refractive index, n
1. The figure (a) shows a light ray travelling
from water to air when its incident angle,
I equal to the critical angle, c of water
and the refracted angle, r = 90 °.
5. When light rays travel in both diamond
and crown glass until it leaves the crown
glass.
6. Light refracted towards normal in
diamond
a. Light refracted away from normal in
crown glass
2. In order to determine the refractive index, b. Light refracted away from normal in air
n of water using Snell’s law (n = sin r ) 7. A diamond sparkle:
refracted angle must be situated in water a. Diamond has a very high refractive
sin i index
Therefore the direction of the light ray has b. Therefore, its critical angle is small
to be reversed in Figure (b). c. The shape of a diamond is cut so that
the angle of incidence is greater than
3. In Figure (b), using Snell’s law: the critical angle.
d. This causes the occurrence of total
internal reflection and thus the diamond
sparkles
4. The higher the refraction index, the

smaller anti cal angle, density of object
increases.
Natural Phenomena and the Uses of Total Internal Reflection.

Road Mirage
1. The figure below shows a road mirage which occurs on a. hot day where the driver sees a
pool of water on the road in front of him but when he approaches the spot, the water does
not really exist. The air consists of several layers with the one nearest to the road being
the warmest and the layers get cooler as it moves upwards.
2. The density and refractive index of air decreases from the top towards the road surface.
3. The light ray PQ, which originates from the sky is refracted and it curves away from the
normal.
4. The incident angle increases as the light ray passes through each lower air layer and when
the incident angle is larger than the critical angle, total internal reflection occurs where
the light ray bends in an upward curve towards the eye of the driver. This causes the
driver to see the image of the sky and clouds as a pool of water on the road surface.
Fish’s eye view

A fish able to see an object above surface the water due to the refraction of light and it is also
an object behind an obstacle due to the total internal reflection.
Prism Periscope
1. Periscopes are used to view objects behind obstacles and they are widely used in
submarines to observe the conditions on the sea surface.
2. The periscope is constructed based on the effects of a prism on light rays where two
right-angled prisms made of crown glass.
3. Total internal reflection occurs at the hypotenuse face of both prisms as the incident
angle, I = 45 ° and it is larger than the critical angle of the glass prism,
c = 42.
4. The image produced is virtual, upright and the same size as the object
5. The advantages of the prism periscope over the mirror periscope
(a) The image is brighter as all the light is reflected.
(b) The image is clearer as there are no multiple images as for in the mirror periscope.
Prism binoculars
1. The prism binoculars are also based on the effects of a glass pr on light rays. On one
section of a binocular, the two glasses are arranged with their hypotenuse faces parallel
but diagonally perpendicular to each other as shown in figure 5.28.
2. The image produced is virtual, upright and not laterally inverted.

3. The distance between the objective lens and the eyepiece of the is short compared to an
astronomical telescope, thus making it portable.
Optical fibre
1. Characteristics: 4. The characteristic enables it to be used as

(a) very thin (0.01 mm diameter) an endoscope by doctors to view internal
(b) elastic rod made of special glass or parts of the human body when it is
transparent plastic inserted into the body.
(c) bundled together with the other 5. In telecommunications, transmission of
optical fibre rods to form a fine information and data signals at high
optical fibre cable bundle. speeds can be done by using optical
2. Light rays experience total internal fibres. The optical fibres enable multiple
reflection once they enter one end of the and large amounts of telephone messages
fibre until they reach the other end even and data to be sent simultaneously. This
when the fibre is bent. is an advantage ever the transmission of
3. Light travel from high density medium to data over the copper wires because
less dense medium. almost all the light that enters the optical
fibres experiences total internal reflection.
6. The optical fibres are also light, portable, (d) inner core of high optical density
cheap and are free from electrical material
interference signals. (e) high purity of inner core to travel the
7. Advantages: signals over a long distance without
- can carry large amount of data, losing information
information (f) diameter small
- transmit signals with very little loss of - Capable of carrying thousands of
energy data signals simultaneously
- very much thinner and lighter - flexible & no brittle
- can be bent around corners
- can travel in curved path
8. Properties of optical fibre
(a) High refractive index of inner core
- Light ray travel from optically
denser medium to less
- produce total internal reflection
when travel in
(b) Low refractive index of outer layer
- angle e > c
(c) Material must be flexible – easy to
bend, can be used for longer distance
FORM 5 CHAPTER 1 WAVES
Understanding waves
1. Ripple tank
(f) wavelength decrease but speed constant

17. Design of transistor circuit to switch on
the street lamps automatically at night:
(a) Water waves formed are like convex & Characteristics Explanation
concave lenses 2 resistors in The resistors act as the
(b) A hand stroboscope can be used to series potential divider
freeze the wave pattern seen on the Position of LDR Produce higher base
white paper. is below base voltage /Vb > junction
(c) Water waves formed are like convex & circuit voltage
concave lenses Npn type is used Forward biased
(d) This cause the parallel light rays from connection of the cell
the lamp to converge forming bright Relay switch To switch on the
spots & diverge forming dark regions. secondary circuit
(e) Wave pattern seen on white paper:
Refraction of waves
1. Refraction of waves is the change of direction of waves when the waves go from one
medium to another with different density./ is the bending of light when it travels through
different medium where the magnitude of speed and direction change.
2. Velocity of waves Wavelength of waves
- at medium of higher density is greater - at medium of higher density is greater
than velocity of the waves at medium of than wavelength of waves at medium of
less density. less density.
- at deep water area is greater than velocity - at deep water area is greater than
of the waves at shallow water area. wavelength of shallow water area.
- E.g.: Wave of the sea follow the shape of -
the shore when it approaches the shore
(wave front of ocean are straight & parallel
as wave speed is uniform)
3. Directions of refracted waves will toward the normal if the waves travel from less density
medium to higher density medium and otherwise.
4. As the depth increases, speed of wave increases, thus the wave length increases. As the
depth reduced, the wave length decreases because the wave travels in a region of
shallower water and causes refraction of waves occurs.
5. Frequency does not effect by the refraction of water wave
6. The patterns of the waves with different density of medium:
- Water wave propagate to normal through
rectangle shape shallow area.
- No changes of the direction of refracted
waves.
- Wavelength in shallow water is less then
deep area.
- density from low to high
- velocity decreases, wave length decreases
- Water wave propagate an angle through
prism shape shallow area. There are changes
of direction of refracted waves.
- Water wave propagate through shallow area

are converged.
- Spherical waves are produced, converge to
focus point and than diverge from the focus
point.
- Water wave propagate through shallow area
are diverged. Spherical waves are produced,
diverge from focus point.
Wave characteristics In deep water In shallow water

Speed Faster Slower
Wavelength Longer Slower
Frequency Unchanged Unchanged
Experiment:
Aim:
To study the refraction of water waves.
Hypothesis:
When the depth of water changes, the velocity and wavelength of water waves change.
Variables:
Manipulated variable: Depth of water.
Responding variable: Velocity and wavelength of water waves
Constant variable: Frequency, wavelength and velocity of incident waves
Apparatus and materials:
Ripple tank and its accessories, glass block, stroboscope, white paper
Arrangement of apparatus:
Procedure:
1. A ripple tank which is filled with water to a depth of 1 cm is set-up.
2. A rectangular glass block is immersed in the centre of the tank.
3. The motor is switched on to produce plane waves.
4. The wave pattern is observed through a stroboscope.
5. The experiment is repeated by placing glass block of different shapes such as trapezium
and triangle in the water.
Tabulation of data:
Shape of glass block Wave pattern
Analysis of data:
Refraction occurs when a water wave travels from one area to another with different depths.
Interference of Waves
7. When distance between the two coherent
1. Interference is the effect of superposition sources increases, then the distance
between two coherent waves. between two consecutive antinodes
2. Coherent sources of waves produce decrease.
waves of the same frequency,
amplitude and constant phase 8. The interference pattern of water wave:
difference.
3. The principle of superposition states that
at any time, the combined wave forms of
two or more interfering waves is given
by the sum of the displacement of the
individual wave at each point of the
medium
4. When a crest meets another crest or a
trough meets another trough, a maximum
crest or trough is formed and
constructive interference occur.
is a increases x decreases.
ii) An object is placed at one of the antinode,
it moves with greater amplitude.
- constructive interference occurs at
antinode
- amplitude increases
iii)  is directly proportional to x.
Formula: [calculation]
ax
5. When a crest meets a trough, the resultant 
displacement is zero & destructive D
interference occurs. a = distance between two sources
x = distance between two
nodes/antinodes
D = distance between sources and r
 = wavelength is the distance between
two consecutive compressions.
- If the depth of water in the ripple tank is
decreased, x decreases.
9. Television reception is affected when an

aeroplane flies over.
a. The aeroplane reflected
6. The interference patterns for water waves
telecommunication wave
from two coherent sources. Destructive
b. The disturbance is caused by the
interference occurs when a crest meets a
superposition and interference between
trough so both of them produce same
the incident wave and the reflected
frequency and same phase or constant
wave.
phase difference.
10. Loud speaker
(a) The distance between two loud
speaker increase, the distance between
consecutive loud / soft sound increase.
(b) The f increase, the  decrease
11. Interference of light waves can show

with Young’s double slit experiments. a.
i. When the prongs of the turning fork
move outward, it produce a region of
compression.
ii. When the prongs of the turning fork
move inward, it produce a region of
refaction.
12. In Young’s double slit experiments, red

fringes are formed.
(a) When red light is replaced by blue
light. The distance between fringes
decreases. i. Candle flame in front of a loud speaker
(b) When red light is replaced by green that emits sound wave
light, the distance between fringes ii. Vibrates forward and backward
decreases.
2. Sound wave is
13. Precaution need to be taken: a) longitudinal wave.
(a) Source of light, double slit & screen b) need medium to travel
must be in a straight line c) cannot be polarized
(b) Experiment must be done in dark
room 3. A loudspeaker connected to an audio
(c) Use a double slit with a smaller slit- signal generator. A microphone connected
separation to a cathode-ray oscilloscope placed near
the loudspeaker.
14. Modulation is the process of combining
audio and radio frequency signals.
15. Monochromatic height are light waves

having a common wavelength or colour
Sound waves
1. In amplitude modulation is the amplitude
of the carrier wave varies as the audio
frequency signal to be transmitted whiles
its frequency a constant.
Experiment: 5. Ultrasonic wave – sound wave with
Aim: To investigate the relationship frequency exceeding 20000 Hz.
between the amplitude and the loudness of
sound 6. How bat use ultrasonic waves to detect
distance of obstacle?
- use ultrasonic sound
- detect distance by listening to echoes
that reaches it
- period of time between sending &
receiving the wave noted
- distance estimated
- can detect ultrasonic sound of 75000
Hz
7. The waveforms for different loudness

sounds:
(a) Soft sound
(b) Initial waveform of sound
(c) Loud sound
8. The waveforms for different frequencies

of sound waves:
(a) Low pitch
(b) Initial waveform of sound

4. With the frequency of the sound wave
fixed, the loudness sound is increased
and the displayed waveforms are
observed. Sound wave is produced by
vibrating of air molecule
b.
(c) High pitch (d) Determine the distance of fish from
fishing box / submarine or Ultrasonic
wave because high frequency & energy
(e) Detect crack / leaks in metal pipe
c.
* How CRO can be used to determine a 12. Indifications on the sonar system to
short time interval: detect fish in deep sea:
- Connect the microphone to input Y of Aspects Explanation
the CRO Ultrasonic waves High frequency,
- Adjust the time base and Y gain to a high energy wave
suitable value Short wavelength Less diffracted
- Make 2 claps in front of the microphone High frequency Able to penetrate
- The time interval = length of 2 claps on the deep sea
the screen  magnitude of the time base Phenomenon To produce echo
reflection of wave
9 Compare: Transmitter Transmit wave
d. Loudness Pitch
Depends on the Depends on the 13. Wave sound
amplitude frequency (a) The distance between the two
waves sources when loud sound are
The bigger The higher the heard will decreased.
amplitude, the frequency (shorter (b) As increases the frequency of the
louder the sound wavelength), the sound wave, wavelength is reduced.
higher the pitch of
sound.(distance (I  is directly proportional to  as
between wave front given by the formula.
decreases) 14. The specifications of a radar system:
(a) Diameter of the parabolic disc
E.g. Sound can be should be large – receive more
diffracted better by signals
the corner (b) Distance of the signal receiver
from the centre of the parabolic disc
10. An echo is the reflection of a sound is the same as the focal length –
wave from a hard surface. reflected signal will be focused to the
(a) Reduce the effect of echo: signal receiver
- put curtains on wall (IMicrowave is used – has a higher
- put carpets frequency / energy; less energy loss
- cover wall with soft board (d) The parabolic disc is high from
11. Sonar/Sound wave: the ground – signals can be easily
(a) Detect the condition & position of a detected and not blocked
foetus or body organs 15. (i) The different distance between sound
(b) Determine the shape & depth of the waves originating from train at night:
seabed i. Air layer at the ground is colder
(ITo clean small surgical instrument for than air layer above it
dental flossing
ii. Cold air is denser as compared to - avoid noise/disturbance
warmer air 18. Application of sound wave (reflection):
iii. Sound travel slower in cold air as (a) Industries
compared to in warmer air i. Sonar equipment emits pulses of
iv. Refraction occur & sound waves sound waves which reflect off the
bents to the observer bottom of the ocean or a shoal of
(ii) Standing on a balcony calling her fish. The time taken for the return
lunch: of the sound waves can be used to
(a) During day, temperature higher calculate the depth or distance of
on the ground underwater objects. (calculation)
(b) The density of air is higher for the Net can be lowered to the actual
area which is always from the location to catch fish
ground ii. The dirt particles on the surface of
(c) Sound wave is moving from high jewellery can be dislodged using
density and to a lower density sound waves.
area. iii. to determine thickness of layer
(d) according Snell’s law the wave is oil
moving away from the normal, as - use high frequency – can
a result, son can’t hear her mom penetrate oil and earth
clearly. - high energy – stronger signal
1he harvesting solar energy by using a will be received
parabolic dish: iv. Medicine (ultrasound):
e. Parabolic shape to collect heat - used for the scanning of a foetus
(a) Shinning surface to reflect more in the womb.
heat more effectively i. used to obtain images of
(b) Large size to collect more heat internal organs such as liver,
(c) Kettle place at the focal point so heart and kidneys.
that heat can be converged onto the ii. used to break kidney stones in a
kettle patient'’ body.
(d) Dish is orientated to face the sun 19. To obtain image of foetus
directly to collect more heat (a) Use ultrasound- safer /no side
17. Design of sound system used in lecture effect
hall: (b) High frequency – can penetrate
i. location of loud speakers should high mother’s womb to scan the foetus
- prevent reflection of sound waves by (c) Small amplitude - does not harm
obstacles as echoes can form foetus//
ii.large distance between two loud (d) High amplitude – to produce
speakers clearer image
- prevent occurrence of interference of (e) Gel is used – reduce frictional force
sound waves & allow transducer to move easily
iii. use softboard cover the wall in the skin
- absorbs sounds, no echoes formed
iv.Microphone put behind speaker
FORM 5 CHAPTER 2 ELECTRICITY
Electric current & Potential difference the conductor to the current, I, flowing
through it.
1. Electric current is the rate of flow of V
R ,Unit  ohm()
electric charges. I
2. The potential difference, V, between two 8. The highest resistance will have a higher
points is defined as the work done or gradient in the graph.
energy produced when one coulomb of 9. Factors which can affect the resistance
charge is moved between the two points. of a conductor are as follows:
workdone
V= ch arg e
energyproduced
V= ch arg e, Q
2. The SI unit of potential difference is the
volt (V).
3. 1 volt is the potential difference between
(a) Type of material
two points if the work done in moving 1
(b) Length
C of charge between the two points is 1 J.
(c) Cross-sectional area (A)
Q  (C )
4. I  Shorter length & bigger diameter of
T  (S )
the wire produce a lower resistance.
Definition: change in charge (d) Temperature.
Unit: Cs 1 or Ampere (A) 10. The resistance, R, varies with
5. Ohm's Law states that the current, I, temperature in the following ways.
flowing through a conductor is directly (a) For a metal such as a tungsten
proportional to the potential difference, filament, its resistance, R increases
V, across the conductor, if temperature with temperature
and other physical conditions are kept
constant.
(a) i.e. I  V, if temperature = constant
(More current flowing through circuit
causes the bulb to be brighter.) E.g. a fan speed regulator.
(b) Resistance is the gradient (b) For a semiconductor (such as a
(b) Hence, if a resistor obeys Ohms law, thermistor), its resistance decrease
a graph of I against V across the with temperature.
resistor will be a straight line.
(c) A superconductor is a conductor

6. Ohmic conductors (that obeys Ohm’s whose resistance decreases suddenly
Law): copper wire, constantan wire to zero when its temperature drops to
7. The resistance, R, of a conductor is the a certain critical temperature.
ratio of the potential difference, V, across
2. Parallel Circuit
(a) Current can flow through more than
one path
I  I1  I 2  I 3
11. A bird perched on a high voltage cable: Example 1:
(a) Body of the bird is parallel to the wire
(b) The resistance of the bird’s body is
much higher than that part of the wire
(c) The current passing through the bird’s
Example 2:
body is very small
(d) The bird does not experience an electric
shock
12. The electrical energy usually transmitted at
high voltage – to reduce energy loss in the (b) The potential difference, V, across
transmission cables each resistor is the same
Series and parallel Circuits
1. Series Circuit
(a) Current flows in one path only
(b) Current flowing through each
(c) The effective resistance less
resistor is the same
I1  I 2  I 3
resistance than series:
1 1 1 1
  
R R1 R2 R3
(c) The potential difference
(d) Bulb produces the brightest light

when in parallel. S
(e) Number of bulbs increases, the
(d) The effective resistance reading of ammeter increases.
R  R1  R2  R3 (f) If R increases, the effective
resistance will decrease & the
current will increases.
(g) Have internal resistance
*The effective resistance in series > in (h) When one of the bulb has blown, the
parallel other bulbs still light up. The
* R1 is brighter because with the same brightness of the bulbs is the same
current and higher resistance, it has because same voltage, current.
more potential difference 3. Suitable characteristics of an electric
(d) If R increases, effective resistance circuit to be used in the ‘brooder’ to
will increase and the current will enable enough heat to be supplied to the
decrease. chicks continuously:
i) Arrangement of dry cell: series (a) Effective resistance
(reason: to increase voltage) 1

1 1 1 1 1
   
ii) Thickness of the wire: decrease the R 24 3 6 3 2
thickness (reason: increases resistance) (b) Reading of the ammeter.
iii) Arrangement of bulbs: in parallel V  IR
(reason: if one bulb is blown the other 6  I ( 2)
still can function) I  3. 0 A
4. Circuit diagram: (c) Find value I 1 &I 2
(a) Example 1: (torchlight containing 2V V  I 1 ( 2  4)
cells) 6  I1 (6)
 I1  1.0 A,
 I 2  2. 0 A
(d) If resistance 3  is removed. What
happen to the ammeter reading?
Decreases
6. A voltage-current graph:
(a) The voltage is obtained from a
voltmeter connected across parallel to
a resistor
(b) The current is obtained from an
ammeter connected in series with the
resistor in the circuit
(b) Example 2:
Electromotive Force & Internal
Resistance
1. The electromotive force, E of a dry cell

is the work done to move one coulomb of
charge flowing through the complete
circuit.
EnergySuppliedByCell
Electromoveforce( Emf ) 
Ch arg e, Q
2. Unit = volt.
3. The voltmeter must be connected in parallel
with the battery to determine the
electromotive force of a battery.
5. Calculation 4. The internal resistance, r, of a cell
Example 1: (a) The resistance of the electrolyte inside
the cell
(b) The opposition to the flow of current
due to the chemicals in the cell
(c) Causes energy to be lost as heat from
the cell
5. Batteries with internal resistance E=6Ω
connected in series and parallel will affect r = gradient of the graph
the brightness of the bulbs: 9. (a)
- Bulb is brighter using 4 batteries in
parallel
- 4 batteries in parallel has the same emf
as 2 batteries in series
- Internal resistance for batteries in
parallel is less
- Current flow is higher when 4 batteries
are connected parallel When X move to Y,
6. Electric circuit (i) I: Decreases
V: Decreases
Electrical Energy & Power

1. Energy produced:
= VIt
= I 2 Rt
Equation: E  V  Ir
V2
V = potential difference across the cell = t
R
I = current
2. Power produced, P
r = internal resistance of the cell
= VI
= I 2R
7. Calculation
V2
Example: =
R
3. Energy dissipated per second = VI
As current decreases, the energy
dissipated decreases.
4. The unit of electrical energy is the joule
(a) Reading of ammeter: (J).
E  I (R  r) 5. Power = rate of change in energy
2  I (4  1)
2 6. The unit of electrical power is the watt
I  0. 4 A (W).
5
V  0.4(4)  1.6V 7. Power dissipated: P  R( I 2 )
* V < E due to internal resistance 8. Relationship between power, P and the
square of the current, of a wire with
8. constant resistance:
P  VI ,
V  IR
P  R( I 2 )
y  mx  c
So, the graph is a straight line through
origin.
9. Rheostat – to control / change the current (b) Tungsten wire is thin
by varying the resistance in the circuit. - Greater resistance, as R 
1
- current flows through a coil of A
conductor wire in rheostat - become hot easily
- length of wire through which by (c) Tungsten wire is coiled
changing position of slider - More efficient because long wire
- when position changed, resistance of can fitted into the glass tube
rheostat & total resistance in circuit - concentrating the heat
change - producing brighter light from the hot
- current in circuit also change filament
10. For the computation of cost of electrical (d) High melting point
energy used, the unit of kilowatt-hour - not melt easily
(kWh) is used: (e) Contain nitrogen gas
1 kWh is the electrical energy used by - Low pressure and long lasting to
an electrical appliance of power 1 kW avoid the bulb to breaks
for 1 hour 16. Design a hair dryer:
11. 1 kWh is also 1 unit of electrical - uses nichrome wire because high
energy. resistance
12. Cost of electrical energy = total number - use smaller diameter of wire as it
of kWh (or units) used X cost per unit produce more heat
13. Electric circuit must be arranged: - high power of fan so that can blow
(a) The cell are connected in parallel more hot air
(b) The positive terminals of the cells are - choose 5A fuse that suitable the
connected to the negative terminal to current of hair dryer
make current flow - long heating element so air flowing
(c) The resistor connected in series with through is heated for a longer time
bulb to increases brightness - low specific heat capacity to heats up
(d) The bulb connected in parallel so one quickly
of the bulb blown, others bulb still - more blades so that higher volume of
light up air blown out
14. Most suitable lamp between filament *Inference: The fan rotates faster because
& fluorescent: more current flow.
(a) used fluorescent lamp - last longer * Hypothesis: The higher the current, the
(b) use low input power – less cost of higher the force.
electricity 17. Modifications of heating filament of
(c) high efficiency – save energy stove coil:
(d) parallel circuit – lamp can be Suggestion Reason
switched on independently High melting point Does not melt
15. Design & characteristics of filament easily
lamp: Specific heat Temperature rises
(a) Made from tungsten wire capacity is low faster
- Higher resistance per unit length Coiled coil filament High resistance,
compared with copper wire concentrate heat
- Higher melting & boiling point than Thin filament High resistance
copper Tungsten/Nichrome High resistance
- can withstand heat
18. Efficiency (d) No current flows
=
OutputPower
X 100%
19. It is more dangerous to touch the live
InputPower wire of a main supply, rather than the
(a) Our bodies are at earth potential (0V) neutral wire
(b) If we touch live wire, there will be a 20. Meaning of 240V, 60W:
large potential different (pd) between Given a voltage of 240V will release a
the live wire & our body. A large power of 60W
cannot follow thought probably fatal.
(c) Neutral wire stage at earth potential,
same potential as our body
Experiment:
Aim: To investigate the relationship between Apparatus and materials: d.c. power supply,
the diameter of wire and the resistance. ammeter, voltmeter, constantan wire, rheostat,
Hypothesis: The resistance of wire increases connecting wires and switch.
as the diameter of wire decreases.
Inference: Resistance of the heating element
depends on the diameter of the heating
element.
Variables:
Manipulated variable: Diameter of the wire
Responding variable: Resistance of the wire
Fixed variable: Length of the wire
Procedure: Tabulation of data:
1. A fixed length of constantan wire with
Diameter Voltmeter Ammeter Resistance
diameter 1.0 mm is connected across point (mm) reading, V reading, I
X and Y.
(V) (A)
2. The switch is closed and the voltmeter 1.0
reading and ammeter reading are recorded. 1.5
3. The experiment is repeated with fixed 2.0
length of constantan wire of diameter 1,5 2.5
mm, 2.0 mm, 2.5 mm dan 3.0 mm. 3.0
4. The resistance of the wire is calculated Graph:
V
with the formula R = .
I
Experiment:
Aim: To investigate the relationship Variable:
between the resistance, R, and the length, (a) Manipulated variable: the length of the
l, of a wire wire, l
Hypothesis: The resistance, R, of a wire (b) Responding variable: the resistance, R
increases with its length, L, temperature of (c)Constant variable: the thickness/diameter
the wire of the wire, type of wire, V
Operational definition Arrangement of apparatus:
V
The resistance of the wire, R  ,
I
voltmeter reading, I = ammeter reading.
Apparatus and materials: Constantan
wire, 1.5 V dry cells, ammeter, voltmeter,
rheostat, switch, connecting wires
Procedure
1. An electrical circuit is set up as shown.
Results:
2. Connect a constantan wire of length l =
I/A V/V R
V
20.0 cm across terminals P and O. Length, l (cm)
I
3. Close the switch and adjust the rheostat
until the ammeter reads I = 0.5 A.
4. Take the reading on the voltmeter as V.
Conclusion:
5. Calculate the resistance of the wire as
V The graph plotted is a straight line passing
R . through the origin. This shows that the
I
6. Repeat the procedure from (2) to (5) resistance, R is directly proportional to the
using constantan wires of length I = 40.0 length, l of the wire
cm, 60.0 cm, 80.0 cm and 100.0 cm. * The reading of voltmeter will decrease if the
rheostat is adjusted to a higher resistance
value.
FORM 5 CHAPTER 3 ELECTROMAGNETISM
Magnetic Effect of a current-carrying

1. The strength of the magnetic held at the
centre of the coil increases when:
a. the current in the coil increases,
b. the number of turns increases,
c. the radius of the coil is smaller.
d. Soft iron coil
e. Diameter increases
2. A Solenoid
(a) Consists of many turns of wire in the

i. form of a cylinder
ii. Direction of magnetic field: (b) A soft iron core is usually placed
inside a solenoid.
(c) soft iron is easily magnetized to
become a strong magnet
3. Factor affect the Electromagnet
i. The strength of the magnetic field
increases when
the magnitude of the current is a) An electromagnetic relay is a device
increased that switches on and off a secondary
ii. the number of turns is increased circuit that carries a bigger current.
iii. the turns of wire are pushed closer b) When switch S is closed, the soft iron
together so that the solenoid becomes core becomes an electromagnet and
shorter attracts the iron plate.
iv. a soft iron core is placed into the c) The movement of the soft iron plate
solenoid pushes contacts C to close.
d) The secondary circuit is switched on.
4. Applications of Electromagnets e) When switch S is opened, no current
(A) Electric Bell flows through the solenoid. The soft
iron core loses its electromagnetism.
f) The soft iron plate spring back to its
original position and contact C is
opened.
g) The secondary circuit is switched off.
(C) Telephone Earpiece
a) When the push-button switch is pressed,

a current flows through the solenoid.
b) The soft iron plate is attracted by the
electromagnetic and the hammer hits
the gong and produces a sound.
c) When the contact is opened, no current
flows through the solenoid.
d) The soft iron core loses all its a) A permanent magnet in the earpiece
magnetism and the steel spring brings attracts the magnetic diaphragm with a
the hammer back to its original certain force.
position. b) When the caller speaks, the earpiece
e) The contact is closed again and the receives a changing current flowing
process repeats. through the solenoid.
f) The loudness of sound of the bell when c) The magnetic diaphragm is pulled by
the switch is closed does not effect the electromagnet with a changing force.
when reverse the polarity of the dry cell d) This causes the diaphragm to vibrate
(B) Electromagnetic Relay and a sound is produced.
e) Modifications:
- increases number turn of coil
- increases strength of electromagnet
- use cylindrical soft iron core
- increases strength of electromagnet 2. The current generator will not effect of
- use thicker wire of coil electromagnet in its working principle
- decreases resistances & the current
- use diaphragm with less stiffness 2. Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule
- so it can vibrate with samller force of 3.
attraction
- Wind the wire on thecores so that the
cores produce different poles at the
ends
- increases strength of electromagnet
(D) Maglev Trains
a) Large electromagnets are used
b) produce a strong repulsive force to keep
the train slightly above the track so that
the train can move at high speed without
friction
(E) Lifting Electromagnets
a) Huge electromagnets suspended from
the end of a crane are used to lift heavy
metal pieces such as iron or steel plates.
b) used to separate iron and steel scraps (a) to determine the direction of the induced
from other materials in a scrap yard. current
When current is switched on. (b) induced current:- current produces
Electromagnetic Induction when a conductor is moved
1. Electromagnetic induction is the perpendicular to the magnetic line of
production of an electromotive force force
(e.m.f) in a conductor when there is a
relative motion between the conductor
and the magnetic field.
5. Laws of Electromagnetic Induction flow in the opposite direction. End P
a) Faraday's law becomes a south pole
states that the magnitude of the g) The attractive force between the end P
electromotive force induced is di- (south pole) and the north pole of the
rectly proportional to the rate of bar magnet opposes the motion of the
change of magnetic flux bar magnet, as stated by Lenz’s law.
b) Lenz's law 7. Reversing of the polarity of magnet will
the induced current always flows in a not affective increases the deflection of
direction that oppose the motion galvanometer.
producing current shows the principle
of conservation of energy.
5.
(a) Switched closed, the solenoid& the

magnet will mutually attract.
Alternating current supply is use in the
transmission of electricity because the
voltage of the alternating current can be
changed easily
6.
a) As the north-pole of the bar magnet

moves inside the end P of the coil, a
change of occurs.
b) According the Faraday’s law, an e.m.f
is induced in the coil
c) The induced current will flow in the
direction so as make the end P a north
pole.
d) Hence, the bar magnet experiences a
repulsive force from the coil.
e) This is in accordance with Lenz’s law
f) When the north pole of the bar
magnet is moved away from end P,
the induced current in the coil will
Experiment:
Aim : To investigate the factors that affect the magnitude of the induced current in a
solenoid.
Application of Electromagnetic Induction: - constant speed without clamping

Direct current Alternating current b) motor should vibrate at small amplitude
(d.c) generator (a.c) generator - will not cause to discomfort of the
baby in the cradle
c) make sure of the oscillation not equally
or exceed the natural
- to prevent resonance
2. Emission of electrons:
The terminals of The terminals of the
(i) The cathode metal is heated at the high
the coil are coil are connected to
temperature by filament
connected to the tw0 slip rings
(ii) Some of the free electrons may gain
split-ring
sufficient energy to escape from the
commutator
cathode metal
When the speed When the speed of 3. Deflection of galvanometer
of the rotation rotation increases, the (a) physical quantity: induced current
increases, the frequency and the (b) The number of turns greater, the angle
magnitude of the magnitude of the of deflection for galvanometer
induced current induced current bigger, current increases.
increases increases (c) As the number of turns increases, the
Electromagnetic Induction Direct rate of changes of magnetic flux
current & Alternating current increases.
(d) Hence, induces more current
1.Modification on baby cradle (e) A resistor is connected parallel to
a) An a.c motor is fixed to cradle at low : galvanometer to produce a full scale
- energy supply by external source to definition
oscillate the cradle
4. Experiment: Current- Carrying Conductor in Magnetic Field
Problem statement: To investigate and understand Hypothesis: The force on current-
interaction between a current-carrying conductor carrying conductor in magnetic field
and the magnetic field. obeys Fleming's left hand rule.
Manipulated Variable : Current and Procedure :
magnetic field (method to control: switch on 1. Two brass rods are clamped in a horizontal
the power supply and the current is set to I = position, so that a third rod AB can rest across
1.0A using rheostat) them as shown in Figure 3.
Responding Variable : Force on current- 2. The two brass rods are connected to the
carrying conductor in magnetic field (method high-current direct current supply (electric
to control: The displacement moved by the source).
sliding conductor is measured using ruler. 3. Then, a two magnadur magnet is bring up,
The data is recorded in the table.) so that AB rest in the pole gap and the current
Constant Variable: Position of magnet is switch on.
Apparatus: High-
current direct current
supply two brass rods,
rod, and two
Magnadur magnets.
(c) The interaction between the two magnetic

fields produces a resultant field which
will force on the conductor (rod).
(d) The force on the conductor (rod) in
magnetic field obeys Fleming's left hand
rule.
Discussion
(a) The direction of AB roll push along the other two rods is depended on:
(i) The direction of the current.
(ii) The direction of the magnet field.
(b) One magnetic field is provided by permanent magnet and another is produced by the
current-carrying conductor.
1. The force motion can be made stronger

by
- Increase the current
- Using a stronger external magnet
2. The application of the interaction of
magnetic fields are
a. The moving coil galvanometer
b. The electric motor
c. The sound from coil speaker
Galvanometer [unit: induced current]
a. The current flows through the loop or

coil ABCD when the commutator
2. The curved poles of the permanent touches carbon brushes M and N.
magnet produce a radial magnetic field. - Applying the Fleming's left hand
3. The iron cylinder is used to concentrate rule to each side of the loop, one
the magnetic flux. side AB is force up, white the other
4. The current passing through the loop side CD is forced down.
goes in one end of the loop and out from b. When the loop has rotated to a
the other end. position perpendicular to the magnetic
5. Applying the Fleming's left hand rule to field as shown in Figure (b), the
each side of the loop, one side is forced commutator has no contact with
down, while the other side is force up. carbon brushes M and N.
6. The resulting torque rotates the loop or - Thus, no current flows though the
coil. loop and no resultant force to move
7. The rotation of the loop will stop when the loop.
the control spring is compressed. The - However, the loop will continue
pointer will point at the value of current rotating due to inertia on the
or voltage on the scale. rotating loop.
8. The magnitude of the torque on the c. The loop is again parallel to the
loop is proportional to the magnitude magnetic field and the commutator
of the current. has contact with M and AT as shown
in Figure (c).
Electric Motor - But, the current direction though
1. Electric motor converts electrical energy the loop is DCBA, thus DC is
to kinetic energy. force up and BA is forced down to
2. There are two types of electric motor continue the rotation in the same
a. Direct current (d.c) motor direction.
b. Alternating current (a.c) motor d. When the loop has rotated to a
position perpendicular to the magnetic
field as shown in Figure (d), the
commutator has no contact with
carbon brushes M and N.
- Thus, no current flows though the
loop and no resultant force to move
the loop. However, the loop will
continue rotating due to inertia on
the rotating loop.
1. Consist cylindrical permanent magnet
with poles on opposite sides placed
within concave poles of a soft iron core
where a solenoid is wound.
2. A shaft connects the magnet to the
driving wheel of dynamo.
3. This makes the magnet also rotate in the
soft iron core when the wheel is turning.
4. An alternating current produced.
Transformer
1. Function: Increase or decrease the

a. The operation principles in Figure (a) alternating voltage
and (b) are same with direct current 2. The purpose of using laminated iron
(d.c) motor. The current flows core in a transformer is to: to reduce
through loop or coil ABCD from eddy current.
carbon brushes M. 3. Principle:
b. However, in Figure (c), the current in a. When the primary coil is connected
the loop reverses in direction. The to source of alternating current
current flows into the loop DCBA voltage, the changing current creates
through brush N. a varying magnetic field.
- thus the rotational force acting on b. The varying magnetic field is carried
the loop is same direction with through the core to the secondary
Figure (a). coil.
c. The loop continues rotating and the c. In the secondary coil, the varying
whole process repeats field induces a varying electromotive
force (EMF).
Bicycle dynamo d. This effect is called mutual
inductance.
4. The electromotive force (EMF) induced
in the secondary coil is called the
secondary voltage, V s .
5. The secondary voltage, V s is
proportional to the primary voltage, V p .
6. The secondary voltage, V s depends on
the ratio of turns on the secondary coil,
N s to turns on the primary coil, N p as
7. The higher the number of turns of 13. Transformer not ideal, because:
secondary coil, the higher the output [Modifications]
voltage and the lower the output current. Reasons Solve
8. If the secondary voltage, V s (voltage a) Lost of energy as - use low R wire
coming out) is larger than the primary heat when current such as Cu
voltage, V p (voltage put in), the pass cool
transformer is called a step-up conductor
transformer. b) Leakage of flux - around 2 o coil
9. If the secondary voltage, V s (voltage around 1 o coil
c) Lost of energy - use soft iron
coining out) is smaller than the primary
due to core
voltage, V p (voltage put in), the
magnetizing &
transformer is called a step-down demagnetising
transformer. d) Formation of - use laminated
eddy current soft iron core
e) Resistance - thick wire,
increases more current
f) High resistance - use copper
wire for low R
14. Changing the magnetic flux near &
conductor will produced induced
electromotive force (EMF), or induced
current. The induced currents will flow
in the conductor. The induced current is
called as eddy current.
15. The eddy currents are minimized by
laminating the core. The laminations
will cut up the available circuits.
10. In an ideal transformer, the electric 16. Characteristics of the National Grid
power delivered to the secondary circuit, Network in electricity transmission:
Ps equals the power supplied to the (a) During non-peak hours, some
primary circuit, P p . power station can be closed to cut
cost.
(b) Transformer can only work
continuously with a.c because
P provide continuously changing
11. Efficiency = out  100  %
PM magnetic flux.
12. Factor that causes the transformer not 17. Importance of National Grid:
100% efficient: - potential → kinetic → electric
- Formation of eddy current energy
- Magnetic flux leakage - the cost of generation of electricity is
- Resistance of primary and secondary reduced because high voltage
coils transmission of energy greatly
- Loss of energy due magnetized and reduce energy loss in cable
demagnetized the iron core
- repair work and maintenance can be (c) High melting point – withstand high
carried out at any power station at temperature
any time (d) Low resistance – increases current
- to ensure the supply of the power flow
continuous (e) Larger diameter (thicker wire) –
- the generation of electricity by each lower resistance
station can be controlled and (f) Increase no. of turns of secondary
regulated according to the demand coil – higher voltage transmitted
pattern (g) Use copper wire – has lower
18. Properties of transmission cables: resistance
(a) low density – decreases weight (h) Use a.c. power supply – alternating
(b) High voltage – overcome high current can be stepped up/down
resistance due to length
Experiment:
Aim: To investigate the relationship between number of turns of wire in the secondary coil
and the output voltage
Hypothesis: The greater number of turns of wire in the secondary coil, the greater the output
voltage
Inference: number of turns of wire in the secondary coil affects the output voltage
Constant variable: The number of turns of wire in the primary coil
Apparatus and the material: ac voltmeter, ac power supply, iron core, insulated copper
wire
Procedure:
1. The set up of the apparatus is as shown in figure above
2. Use 900-turns copper coils as the primary coil and 100 turns of secondary coil of a
transformer.
3. The switch is on and the output voltage is measured by using a voltmeter
4. The experiment is repeated by using copper coil with 200 turns, 300 turns, 400 turns, 500
turns as the secondary coil and same number of primary coil.
Result:
number of turns of wire in the secondary coil, N Output voltage, V
100
200
300
400
500
FORM 5 CHAPTER 4 ELECTRONICS
Cathode-ray tube (CRO) oscilloscope

1. Cathode ray is a beam of electron flows
from cathode to anode./is fast moving
electron.
2. Cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O.) is an
7. Calculation: connect with RO
instrument that converts electronic and
8. When CRO are turned off:
electrical signals to a visual display.
3. Electrons are emitted by the hot metal
filament.
4. Cathode ray is negative charge because it
is attracted to positive plate.
5. When the potential difference of the extra
high tension is increased, the angle of
deflection of cathode ray increases
because the strength of electric field
increased.
6. Screen applied:
a) a.c. main supply
b. Control grid: Regulates the no. of

9. Cathode-ray tube: electrons which reach the anode & thus
Heating filament: Heats the cathode to a control the brightness of the spot on
high temperature the screen.
a. Cathode: Emits electrons from its c. Focusing anode: Focuses the electrons
surface after being heated to a high leaving the cathode to a narrow beam
temperature
so that they arrive at the same spot on 3. Doping process – to produce covalent
the screen. bond
d. Accelerating anode: Accelerates the 4. increases the free electron inside
electron beam to a high velocity semiconductor
e. Y-plates: To deflect the electron beam 5. majority the change – carriers is negative
vertically (up and down) electron
f. X-plates: To deflect the electron beam 6. Diode
horizontally (from left to right)
g. Energy change of the cathode ray as it
moves from anode to hitting the
fluorescent screen is kinetic energy to
light energy.
h. Properties of cathode rays:
- Negatively charged
- Travel in straight lines
- Deflected by magnetic fields 7. Type:
- Deflected by electric fields a) Add: Pentavalence Trivalence
b) Majority electron hole
change
carrier
c) Minority hole electron
charge
carrier
d) e.g Phosphorus, Boron,
Antimony, Indium,
Arsenic Gallium
e) At the junction, both electron and hole
will be absorbed into p-type material
and n-type material each and from the
Semiconductor combination of both charges is a decay
1. Semiconductor is a material with layer with an empty charge carrier.
electrical conductivity better than
insulator but weaker than a conductor.
2. Doping is adding of foreign atom into

semiconductor to increases conductivity
6. Function of C.R.O
(a) Measure voltage
(b) Determine type of source
(c) Find T& f
(d) Find time internal
7. Time base – sweep voltage is connected
to x-plate to allow the spot to move
horizontally
8. Reverse biased
2. The decay layer at n-type with positive

charge while p-type with negative charge
and these will produce junction voltage
that can block the current flow across the
junction. - p-type and n-type material are
3. Production of current flow with voltage connected to the end to the negative
more than junction voltage can be hole and each electron is pulled
achieved across the junction with terminal.
germanium and silicone (semiconductor) - The bulb does not lighten up because
each at voltage 0.1 V and 0.6 V. of the current flow is too low and a
4. Forward biased few holes flow create electron from
the dismantle covalent bond of
semiconductor after is being heated.
Diode as rectifier
1. Diode can be used as rectifier to change
alternating current to direct current.
2. The transition process of d.c. to a.c. is
named as rectification.
3. It only allows current flow in one
direction to change alternating current
to direct current.
- The end of n-type and p-type material 4. A cycle of alternating current can be
are connected to the positive and divided into two half cycles, which are
negative terminal of battery. positive half cycle and negative half
- Higher current flow through diode and cycle.
bulb will light up, when voltage exceed 5. There are two types of rectifier
junction voltage. a. Half wave rectification
- Current will be produce because of
hole movement and electron across
junction in the opposite direction.
5. Function of control grid
(a) Control number of e-travel
(b) control brightness of the spot
- On the second half cycle, terminal
Q is positive, current flows from Q-
C-D-X-Y-B-A-P.
- Therefore, full wave rectification by
arrangement of four diode will
allow current flow from X to Y for
whole cycle
Capacity as Current Smoothing

1. Capacity
(a) – store charge
- For the first half cycle, terminal P is (b) – smoothen the output current of a
positive, the diode forward biased reflection circuit
and current is allowed to go through 2. The output voltage can be smoothen to
it. When second half cycle, terminal be more compact by connecting a
P is negative, diode is reverse capacitor, C parallel to resistor Rl.
biased and current is not allow to 3. When voltage across Rl and C increase,
flow through it. capacitor C is charge up and energy is
- Therefore, rectification of half wave kept in capacitor.
by a diode to flow current from X to 4. When voltage across Rl decrease,
Y for the half cycle only. capacitor will discharge and provide a
- Capacitor, C is connected parallel charge across resistor Rl.
with resistor, R to smoothing output - Therefore, output voltage will be
voltage. smoothen.
b. Full wave rectification 5. The current flow through capacitor
a. Charging capacitor
- At the first half positive cycle, the
diode forward biased and current is
allow to flow through diode and
increase to maximum and then
reduce to zero when current flow
through capacitor and resistor.
- Then, capacitor is charged and
electric energy is kept in it.
b. Discharge capacitor
- The diode is reverse biased. When
second half negative cycle with no
current allow to flow through diode,
capacitor and resistor
- the capacitor is discharge and
electric energy which is kept will be
released to maintain the voltage
- When the first half cycle, terminal P across the resistor.
is positive, current flows from P-A-
D-X-Y-B -C-Q.
3. NOT gate
Input Output
A X
0 0
1 1
6. Higher capacitance for a capacitor is 4. NAND gate
more suitable as a current smoother to
produce more smoothen output
voltage because capacitor need more
time to charge and discharge.
Logic GATE
- a switching circuit which has one or
more input terminals but only one Input Output
output terminal A B X
1. AND gate (combination circuit) 0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
5. NOR gate
Input Output
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
2. OR gate
Input Output
A B X
0 0 1
Input Output 0 1 0
A B X 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
6. EXCLUSIVE-OR/X-OR A+B 7. X-NOR
FORM 5 CHAPTER 5 RADIOACTIVITY

1. Radioactivity/radioactive decay:
Spontaneous disintegration of unstable nucleus to form a more stable nucleus by releasing
radioactive ray.
2. Radioactive substance: A substance that has unstable nucleus that always decay to be
more stable by emitting radioactive emissions.
3. Radioisotope: isotope with unstable nucleus & tend to decay
4. Radioactive can be use to generate electricity
5. Types of radiations
Alpha Beta Gamma
a) Symbol
4
, He
2
B,
0
1
e 
b) Properties Helium, nucleus fast moving e  electromagnetic ray
c) Speed Slow Fast Very fast
d) Charge +ve -ve 0
e) Ionising
High Medium Low
power
f) block by Paper Aluminium Thick lead
6. Effect in electric field

Beta attached to positive charge at the
plate whereas alpha (has positive charge)
attached to negative charged plate.
7. Effect in electric field

P shorter: - is e 
- high
**equation**
Radioactive Emission
Precautionary Steps in Handling an atom to half of its original amount, N 0 .
Radioactive Substances decay process is random.
1. Experiments involving radioactive
substances are conducted in a room
enclosed by concrete walls.
2. Strong radioactive substances are handled
using remote-controlled mechanical arms
from a safe distance.
3. Weak radioactive substances can be
handled using a pair of tongs or tweezers.
4. Radioactive wastes must be disposed using 4T 1 / 2 x 5 = 20 days
suitable and safe methods. 2. The time dependence of radioactive decay
5. Rooms, buildings, containers and can be represented by exponential decay
radioactive storage places must be labelled curve.
with the sign for radioactive substance. 3. The decay curve never reaches zero
6. Radioactive substances are kept in thick because half of something is still
lead containers. something.
7. Protective suits and gears such as gloves, 4. From Figure above, the remain mass of a
and eye glasses made of lead are used at all radioactive substance, N after decay can
times when handling radioactive be determine by:
substances.
8. Shield made of thick lead protects the
workers in their workplace from harmful
radiations.
9. Workers handling radioactive substances
must wear special badges which detect the
amount of radiation they are exposed to.
10. Food and drinks are not allowed in places 5. The reading of the rate meter did not drop
where radioactive substances are handled. to zero after radioactive substance was
removed is due to the background radiation.
Half-life
Nuclear Fission
1. The half-life, T 1 / 2 of a radioactive
Bombardment of bigger instable nucleus by
substance is the time it takes for decay of fast moving newton to form smaller nucleus
& energy .
5. Example
1. A radioactive nuclide is capable of

undergoing radioactive decay
disintegration
2. The smaller the mass of emission, the
higher the degree of deflection
3. Fission-type nuclear reactor:
(a) Uranium rod is used as fuel for
nuclear fission
(b) Graphite rod is used to slow down the
velocity of neutrons for effective
fission
(c) Boron rod is used to control the rate
of fission by absorbing any extra
neutrons Characteristics of nuclear reactor:
(d) The combine actions of 3 rods ensure
the fission is continuous & is polkaing
heat at controlled rate
4. Heat released by the fission is extracted by
water to produce a large quantity of steam
5. The stem is used to rotate the turbines
which in turn produce electricity
6. The fission is carried out in a chamber
made of thick concrete& lead. This help
to prevent leakage of radioactive emission 1. graphite is used for the moderator – to
and to ensure the safety of workers. slow down the fast neutrons produced
by the fission
Nuclear Energy 2. use boron as the control rod – reduce
Mass Defect rate of fission reaction
3. to absorb some of the neutron
4. use heavy water as the coolant –
absorb heat from nuclear reaction
5. high specific heat capacity
6. thick concrete shield – to prevent
leakage of radiation from the reactor
core
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2020 SPM PHYSICS

4. (a) Consistency is the ability to register

Micrometer Screw Gauge

1. The accuracy of the micrometer screw gauge is 0.01 mm.

3. When taking a measurement:

Micrometer screw gauge reading

FORM 4 CHAPTER 2 FORCES & MOTION

- zero gradient - Constant gradient

- Increasing gradient - Decreasing gradient

(b) Velocity-time graphs

- The net force, F=0

- Constant gradient (positive) - Constant gradient (negative)

- Increasing gradient (positive) - Decreasing gradient (positive)

(B) Inelastic collision

i. The diagram is drawn to a suitable scale.

i. A suitable scale is used in this drawing

Modifications to avoid string from being

r. Factors that Affecting the Elasticity / Stiffness of a Spring [Hooke’s Law]

(b) Length of spring

(d) Diameter of wire/ thickness of spring

(e) Arrangement of springs

o. Modification to baby cradle:

h) Drawing a conclusion : The period

Graph of spring extension, x against stretching force, F is drawn.

FORM 4 CHAPTER 3 FORCES & PRESSURE

Pressure in liquid - the higher the water pressure acting on

Applying Pascal’s Principle

1. When the brake pedal is pressed,

2. The compressed air from the compressor

Pressure depends its depth

6 9 Weight of iceberg floating on the surface

15 A balloon filled with helium gas able to

a) The mass of balloon filled with helium

9. Apparent weight is actual weight minus

FORM 4 CHAPTER 4 HEAT

Understanding the Gas Laws

Experiment: Boyle's law

outside is greater and presses the bottle T1 T 2

p. (a) A graph of x against 8 is shown in Figure 4.42. length of air column, x

*Latent heat of fusion is absorbed during the process of melting

1. Reflection of Light on Curved Mirrors

3. Light rays travelling from glass to air by different incident angles.

A ray parallel to the principal A ray through F is A ray through C is

A ray parallel to the principal A ray towards F is A ray towards C is

Images formed by a concave mirror

The object is located at C

The object is located at F Light rays travel in parallel • Upright

The object is located in front Behind the mirror • Upright

Imaged formed by a convex mirror Satellite dish

2. The critical angle, c of a medium is the

Inference: The angle of refraction depends on angle of the incidence.

Relationship between Critical Angle, c

4. The higher the refraction index, the

Natural Phenomena and the Uses of Total Internal Reflection.

Fish’s eye view

2. The image produced is virtual, upright and not laterally inverted.

1. Characteristics: 4. The characteristic enables it to be used as

(f) wavelength decrease but speed constant

- Water wave propagate through shallow area

Wave characteristics In deep water In shallow water

9. Television reception is affected when an