Physics

Physics is the natural

science that involves the
study of matter and its
motion through space and
time, along with related
concepts such as energy and force.

Measurements and units

Measurement is a fundamental part of Physics like any other scientific subject.
A complete measurement in physics is called a Physical quantity which is
made up of 2 parts: A number and a unit.
A physical quantity is a property of an object that can be measured with a
measuring instrument.
Prefixes are used in physics to describe small and big numbers
Systems of units
We had several systems for units which might still be used in some
countries.
But in physics the units we use are the SI units “International system of units”
Basic SI units (we will start only with three of them)

Quantity Name of SI Unit Symbol Device used to measure

Length meter m Meter rule

Mass kilogram kg Balance

Time second s Stopwatch

I. Measuring Length.
 Length: is the distance between two points in a space.
 According to SI units, the length quantity is expressed in meter.
 There are several kinds of measuring devices used to measure quantity
of length, among others, are as follows.

Tools used…
 Measuring tape. (Ranges about 2m ~100m)

 Rule. (Ranges about 30cm ~ 100cm) 100cm rule is

called meter rule.
  Vernier calipers. Can measure about 0.1 mm length.

 Micrometer used to measure small distances accurately (has

accuracy until 0.01 mm.

Errors
Error is the difference between the actual value of a quantity and the value
obtained in measurement.
There are 2 main types of error
1) Systematic Error
2) Random Error
 1) Systematic Error:
Systematic errors are errors which tend to shift all measurements in a
systematic way so their mean value is displaced. Systematic errors can
be compensated if the errors are known.
Examples of systematic errors are:
1. Zero error:
 Caused by an incorrect position of the zero point.
 Arises when the measuring instrument does not start from
exactly zero.
 Consistently present in every reading of a measurement.
 Can be positive or negative.

(NO ZERO ERROR: The pointer of (POSITIVE ZERO ERROR: The (NEGATIVE ZERO ERROR: The
the ammeter place on zero when no pointer of the ammeter does not pointer of the ammeter does not
current flow through it.) place on zero but a negative value place on zero but a negative value
when no current flow through it.) when no current flow through it.)

Other systematic errors…

2. An incorrect calibration of the measuring instrument.
3. Consistently improper use of equipment.
Systematic error can be reduced by
1. Conducting the experiment with care.
2. Repeating the experiment by using different instruments.

2) Random errors
 Random errors arise from unknown and unpredictable variations in
condition.
 It fluctuates from one measurement to the next.
 Random errors are caused by factors that are beyond the control of
the observers.
 Random error can cause by:
1. Personal errors: such as human limitations of sight and touch.

2. Lack of sensitivity of the instrument: the instrument fails to

respond to the small change.

3. Natural errors: such as changes in temperature or wind, while

the experiment is in progress.

4. Wrong technique of measurement. (Parallax error)

Parallax error
A parallax error is an error in reading an instrument due to the eye of the
observer and pointer are not in a line perpendicular to the plane of the
scale.

To avoid parallax error, several readings of the subject must be measured.

The view must straight to the reading.
 II. Measuring Time.
 Very long period of times as years, months, weeks,
and days can be counted easily.
 Very short times “fractions of seconds” can be
calculated by measuring time for a certain number of
pulses, or movements, and then divide this time by
the number of pulses.

Tools used
a) Stop clock
b) Stopwatch

Tip: Calculation of a period or very short period of time

For measuring short intervals of time (when each period is the same),
multiple measurements can be taken and then averaged
e.g. Period of a pendulum = Time for 10 oscillations / 10
Measure the time needed for n complete swings in T seconds

Periodic time = T/n

Example- 30 swings in 60 seconds

Time of one swing=60 s/ 30 swings = 2 seconds.

Notes:
a) Time of one complete swing is measured when the string starts its
motion from one end and returns back to the same starting point.
b) Remember there is always a reaction time associated with using a
clock or stopwatch.
c) To obtain an accurate record (result) you have to repeat the experiment
several times and calculate the average value of your results.
d) If the length of the string is changed, the periodic time will be also
changed, as length of pendulum string increases, its periodic time
increases.

Tip: Calculation of a period or very short period of time

• The time it takes for the pendulum to make one
complete swing or oscillation is called its period.
• The period of a simple pendulum depends only on
the length of the pendulum.
• To measure the time for a single oscillation with
degree of accuracy is impossible.
• To find the period accurately we time at least 10 oscillations and then
divide the reading by the number of swings. This reduces the uncertainty in
the time for one oscillation by a factor of 10.

Notes:
a) Time of one complete swing is measured when the string starts its motion from one
end and returns back to the same starting point.
b) Remember there is always a reaction time associated with using a clock or stopwatch
c) To obtain an accurate record (result) you have to repeat the experiment several times
and calculate the average value of your results.
d) If the length of the string is changed, the periodic time will be also changed, as length
of pendulum string increases, its periodic time increases.
 III. Measuring Mass

Mass is the amount of material that a body

contains.
Weight is the force of gravity acting on a
mass.
Weight (N) = mass (kg) x 10
Compare between mass and weight

Quantity Definition Unit Device

the amount of material that a body contains it doesn’t Beam

Mass Kg
change from one place to another balance
the force of gravity acting on a mass it changes from one
Spring
Weight place to another according to the strength of gravity of this N
balance
place

Notes:
 Mass and weight are not the same.
 Weight will be discussed later.
 Moon’s gravity is 1/6 of the gravity of earth.
 If a man with mass 120 kg.
 His weight on earth will be 1200 N.
 His weight on moon will be 200 N.
 His weight in space will be zero N.

Notes about measuring small masses:-

a) On measuring the mass of very small objects like pins or similar, measure the mass
of a certain number of them (40 for example) and then divide the mass of them on this
certain number to reduce the measurement error.
b) As you increase the number the error will be reduced more.
High mass means “High INERTIA”…. what is inertia?
 IV. Measuring Volume.
 Volume is the space occupied by a body.
 The SI unit of volume is m3

A- Volume of regularly Shaped Objects

Volume of some of the regular solids can be calculated using the formulae given in the
following table.

Object Volume(formula)

Cube (length)3 = L3
Cuboid length X breadth X height = L x b x h
Cylinder pi x radius2 x height = pi r2 h
Sphere 4/3 x pi x (radius)3 = 4/3 pi r3
Cone 1/3 x pi x (radius)2 x height = 1/3 pi r2 h

Note:-
The solid shape must be hard to be measured accurately; if it is made up of clay or
something similar will the calculated volume will not be the true volume.

B- Volume of Irregularly Shaped Objects

 Volume of irregularly shaped objects can be found out by Displacement method.
 By measuring the volume of displaced liquid by an
object. We can find the volume of these solids with the
help of a measuring cylinder.

Steps:-
a) Fill the overflow vessel with water until the water start
overflowing.
b) When water stops overflowing, place the measuring
cylinder below the overflowing tube.
 c) Slowly lower the irregular solid into the water by a very thin string.
d) When the water stops overflowing, read the volume of the water collected in the
measuring cylinder.
e) This reading will be the volume of the irregular solid shape.

Measuring cylinder.
To measure the volume of an irregular body using measuring cylinder
Steps:-
a) Pour water into a clean measuring cylinder (nearly
three fourth of its volume) and record the level of water
(v1).
b) Slowly lower the irregular solid into the water by a very
thin string.
c) Measure the new volume of the water and the stone
(v2).
d) Then calculate the volume of irregular solid shape as

“v= v2-v1”
you can use measuring cylinder for sure to measure the volume of liquids.

Notice that:-
1. The measuring cylinder must be placed on a horizontal bench.
2. Using large measuring cylinder to measure small amounts, leads to errors in
results.
3. You have to avoid parallax error.
4. If the string holding the stone is thick it may cause a reading error or absorb little
amount of water.
5. Equal masses of different densities have different volumes
Liquid levels
1. Reading must be taken at the lowest level of meniscus or curved surface of the
liquid.
2. Reading must be taken at the top level of meniscus or curved surface of the
liquid in case of Mercury.
3. Liquid A is water and liquid B is mercury.

V. Density
Which is heavier – the wood in the trunk of a tree or the metal in a coin? Your first
answer might be to say the trunk of the tree, but it can float on water while a coin would
quickly sink to the bottom,

To be a fair comparison we need to find the masses of equal volumes, if we found the
mass of a piece of wood the size of a coin we would see it was lighter.
In the school laboratory, when small amounts of materials are used, the density of a
substance is often calculated using masses measured in grams and volumes in
centimeters cubed, giving a density value in g/cm3, The density value in units of
g/cm3 can be converted to a value in kg/m3 by multiplying it by 1000. For example, ice
was found to have a density of 0.920 g/cm3. This can also be expressed as
0.920 x 1000 = 920 kg/m3

Density is the mass of unit volume

In SI unit of density is kg/m3
But can be measured also in g/cm3
 Density (d) = mass (m) / volume (V)

At constant mass: The density is inversely proportional with volume of the substance.
d inversely proportional to V

At constant volume: The density is directly proportional with mass of the substance
d is directly proportional to m

Material Density / kg/m3

Ice 920
Cork 250
Wood 650
Pure water (at 40C) 1000
Steel 7900
Aluminum 2700
Copper 8940
Lead 11350
Gold 19320
Polythene 920
Perspex 1200
Expanded polystyrene 15

If equal volumes are compared, the one of the greatest mass will have the greatest density.
If equal masses are compared, the one with smallest volume will have the greatest density.

Questions
1. Arrange the materials in this table in order of density, starting with the least dense material.
2. Which is heavier, 1 m3 of steel or 1 m3 of aluminum?
3. Which is heavier, 1 kg of steel or 1 kg of cork?
Notes:
i. Density of water at 4 0C is 1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm3.
ii. Density doesn’t depend on the volume (how big) of the body only; it depends
on both its volume and its mass.
iii. Density changes with temperature but the density of water is a very
exceptional with heat change.
iv. Densities of gases depend on their pressure too.
v. The less dense float over the surface of the denser.
vi. The denser will sink or goes down.

Density Experiments
A- To determine the density of a liquid
Apparatus
Measuring cylinder, electronic balance
Procedures
1. Find the mass of the dry measuring cylinder using an electronic balance m 1.
2. Add a specific volume of the liquid into the measuring cylinder, record the volume V.
3. Measure the mass of the cylinder with the liquid m2.

Calculation
The mass of the liquid m = m2 – m1
The density of the liquid can be calculated from the formula ρ = m/v

Precaution
When reading from the burette, make sure that the eye is placed at the same level as
the meniscus of the liquid. (To avoid ……… error)
B- To determine the density of a regular object
Apparatus
Ruler, Vernier calipers or micrometer screw gauge
Electronic or digital balance

Procedures
1. Measure the mass of the regular object using an electronic balance m.
2. Find the volume (v) of the regular object by measuring its dimensions then the
volume can be calculated using the respective formulae.

Calculation
Density can be calculate using the formula ρ = m/v
Note:
Density can be used to indicate the degree of purity.