Mustapha Ben Boulaid University- Batna 2-

Faculty of Letters and Foreign Languages

Department of English Language and Literature

Teacher: AGGOUN WAFA Groups: 01/ 05

Module: LINGUISTICS Email : wafaenglish2018@gmail.com
Level: SECOND YEAR

Part II: GENERATIVISM (NOAM CHOMSKY)

Chomsky’s Principles
1. Recursiveness
According to Chomsky, grammar will generate all the well-formed syntactic structures
and it fails to generate ill-formed structures. It has finite number of rules but it will be able
to generate infinite number of well-formed structures. In this way, the productivity of
language would be captured within grammar. Hauser et al., 2002 argued that, "there is no
longest sentence (any candidate sentence can be trumped by, for example, embedding it
in 'Mary thinks that . . .'), and there is no non-arbitrary upper bound to sentence length."
(p. 1571).

Recursiveness is the capacity to apply the rules of language more than once in
generating a structure. For example, whatever rule yields the component that chased
the cat in sentence this the dog that chased the cat, will have to be applied again to get
that killed the rat and any other similar structure which could continue the sentence
This is the dog that chased the cat that killed the rat…

According to Yule (2010), grammar is capable of revealing the basis of two other
phenomena:
1. How some superficially distinct sentences are closely related
2. How some superficially similar sentences are in fact distinct
Deep Structure and Surface Structure

Chomsky (1957), rejecting the formal analysis of sentences, distinguishes two levels
of syntactic structure in a sentence: the surface structure and the deep structure.
The surface structure (SS) is the syntactic structure of the sentence which a
person speaks or hears: it is the observable form of the sentence. Chomsky argues that
any analysis based on the surface structure encounters difficulties. Therefore, another
level of sentence structure should be taken into account.
The deep structure (DS) is much more abstract and is considered to be in the
speaker's mind. It refers to certain important generalizations about the structure of the
sentence which are different from its surface. The deep structure contains all the syntactic
information needed for the understanding of a given sentence. The deep structure is
converted into a surface structure after the application of a specific kind of rules called
transformational rules (TRs).

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 It may then be said that the deep structure expresses the semantic contents of a
sentence, whereas the surface structure of a sentence determines its phonetic form.
Example:
Surface structure Deep structure
Visiting doctors can be nuisance We visit doctors.
It can be nuisance.

Doctors visit us.

They can be nuisance

Transformation rules (TRs) function as a link between deep structure of sentences

and their surface structures.

DS TRs SS
2. Introspection

It is a methodology adopted as a tool for the grammaticality judgment in the

generative framework. Introspection enables language users to judge the
grammaticality and acceptability of sentences by resource to their own linguistic
intuition.
Chomsky believes that a speaker of a language knows whether sentences are
grammatical or not. This fact emerges from introspection (study from the inside) or
intuition.
Example: “I was surprised by John refusal to come”

This sentence implied internal relations which are identical to those found in the
sentence “John refused to come”, although there is nothing in the 1ST sentence which says
that the internal relations between (John and refusal) are the same as those between
(John and refused). In addition, the speaker of a language is able to perceive the ambiguity
in the sentence like: “Visiting relatives is a nuisance”. In this sentence there is only one
surface structure but at least two deep structures according to whether the speaker
means: He visits relatives or relatives visit him.

To convince himself that the sentence has a given meaning, the linguist recites it
several times with or without voicing. He/she thinks about the situations in order to
interpret the sentence:

 He/she reads the sentence presented to him/her

 He/ she imagines and makes up possible situations
 He/she refers to them for the relevant sentence
 He/she judges what kind of introspection he/she can obtain from the sentence

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 3. Innateness

The innateness hypothesis asserts that language ability is innate in humans. Humans
are genetically predisposed to acquire and use language. This principle claims that babies
are born with knowledge that languages have patterns and with the ability to seek out
and identify those patterns. The main arguments in favor of innateness hypothesis are:
 Language acquisition would be difficult or even impossible without an innate
grammar.
 The mere existence of language universals supports the hypothesis that language
is innate.
 All humans acquire language and no other animals.

Poverty of the stimulus

It is the main problem that led Chomsky to his innateness hypothesis. Chomsky’s
main question was: “how anyone can know fairly much although he had little contact
to the outside world”.
To make up for the lack of stimulus, a human being, according to Chomsky, must
have another mechanism of learning, specifically of acquiring the language, than simply
by stimulus from the outside. Chomsky made up the claim that “a child is born with an
innate capacity for language development, that the human being is in some way pre-
constructed towards the development of language; so, when the child is exposed to
language, certain language structuring principles automatically commence to
operate”
Transformational Generative Grammar

Transformational Generative Grammar (TGG) refers to a theory of generative

grammar that aims to understand the processing of grammatical knowledge in the human
brain. TGG is best explained by considering the two key words in the string. There are:
transformational and generative.
“Transformational” is an adjectival derivation from the noun transformation.
Transformation in this sense refers to a device or a process of changing the form of one
linguistic structure to another.

“Generative” on the other hand is an adjective formed from the verb “to generate”. It
means to describe. When it is said that a rule generates a sentence, what this means in
transformational grammar is that, a particular rule or set of rules describe how a
particular linguistic element or string is formed.

Transformational generative grammar is a form of language analysis that is

established with the different elements in the sentence of a language and makes use of
rules of transformations to recognize these relationships.

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 Key Concepts in Transformational Generative Grammar

1. Phrase Structure Rules

Chomsky develops a notation which both orders the analytic decisions and formally
relates them to each other by deriving each decision from some previous one (first level
of transformational grammar) (Adetuyi & Olusola, 2015). The way used by Chomsky in
syntactic structures, is as follows:

2. Transformational Structure Rules

This is the second level of transformational grammar and the level in which
transformational rules operate in reality. transformational rules operate on the strings
produced by the phrase structure component and altered then in various ways (by
turning active string into passive one, by altering word order, by adding inflections and
so on) making various relationship between different types of sentences explicit (Adetuyi
& Olusola, 2015) .

Example:
Passive transformations: alters the order of elements in active sentence and adds
three further elements:
 a form of the verb `be' in the appropriate tense;

 a particle `by' to indicate the agent following,

 a past particle affix, symbolized as - en, attached to main verb).

(The boy) (will kick) (the ball) (The ball) (will be kicked) (by) (the boy).
(NP1) + (Aux + Verb) + (NP2) (NP2) +(Aux + be +V) + (by) + (NP1)
(Warsi, 2015)

The syntactic component consists of two sub components - The base sub-component
and the transformational sub-component. The base corresponds to the earlier phrase
structure rule; its function is to represent the underlying representations of sentences,
which is what provides the deep structure information. Transformational sub-
component produces surface structure.

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 Meaning

GENERAIVE RULES

Deep Structure

TRANSFORMATIONAL RULES

Surface Structure

Transformations are either obligatory or optional (such as passivization of an active

sentence). Optional transformational rules include the Passive Rule and the Negative
Rule (Halt, 2014).
Passive: Structural Description NP, Aux, Vt , NP, {Adv, ––}
Structural Change X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 => X4 – X2+be+en – X3 – by+X1 – X5

Negation : Structural Description (a) NP, C, VP

(b) NP, C + M, X
(c) NP, C + have, X
(d) NP, C + be, X

Structural Change X1 – X2 – X3 => X1 – X2+n’t – X3

(Halt, 2014)
Chomsky (1957) discussed the following five transformational rules:

 Merge T-rules combine individual lexical constituents into larger phrase-level

(and then clause-level) constituents. There are many such merge operations in
the grammar. Merge T-rule “Create NP” (optional): DS: N1 SS: (Det) + (AdjP) + N1
+ (S) + (PP)
1. cat
2. my cat
3. my calico cat
4. the cat on the sofa
5. the cat that caught the mouse

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  Move T-rules shift a constituent from one position to another in the SS. There
are many move operations in the grammar.

Move T-rule “Yes/No question formation” (optional):

DS: NP1 + Aux + V + NP2
SS: Aux + NP1 + V + NP2

John will see Mary Will John see Mary?

 Insert T-rules add a constituent into the SS should the DS lack the required
constituent. There are many different insertion operations in the grammar. Most
insertion operations add grammatical morphemes needed in the SS.
Insert T-rule “do-support” (obligatory):
DS: NP1 + V + NP2
SS: NP1 + Aux (do) + V + NP2

John saw Mary John did see Mary.

 Delete T-rules remove a constituent from the SS that the DS explicitly marks as
the required constituent. There are many different deletion operations in the
grammar. Most deletion operations remove grammatical morphemes that have
been grammaticalized in the SS, such as irregular forms of nouns, verbs, etc.

Delete T-rule “irregular past tense” (obligatory):

DS: NP1 + V + pst + NP2
SS: NP1 + [V]pst + NP2

John write [+past tense] Mary John wrote Mary.

This deletion T-rule now removes the regular past tense marker –ed since it is
grammaticalized into the vowel change in some irregular verbs, such as read (past tense,
[rɛd]), gave, or wrote.
Kernal and Non-Kernal Sentences
kernel sentences define simple sentences which have not gone through any process
of transformation. They are simple, active, and declarative sentences. The kernel
sentence composed of a subject and a single verb and sometimes a direct object.
Non kernel sentences (complex sentences) composed of variety of clauses and
phrases that are derived from kernel sentences by transformation rules.
Example:
The cat sat on the mat The mat was sat on by the cat
It was the cat that sat on the mat

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 Chapter Four: Criticism of Chomsky’s work.
The Difference between “Syntactic Structures” and “Aspect of the Theory of Syntax”

Syntactic Structures (1957) Aspect of the Theory of Syntax (1965)

It comes as a reaction against Bloomfield It comes as a reaction against the

ICA. deficiencies discovered in the attempts to
formulate the theory of TGG.

A foundation book of Chomsky’s TGG Production of an elegant theory of the

(surface and deep structure). relation of syntax to semantics and
phonology.

The emphasis was on Kernel sentences
(simple, active, affirmative and
declarative sentences) by using
obligatory transformations and
necessary morphological processes
needed to arrive at actual sentences.
A more stringer TGG model than the
original one called “The Standard
Theory” which had noticed the insertion
of semantic component.

Non Kernel sentences (passive,

negative, interrogative sentences) involve
optional transformations to introduce
new semantic information

The key terms used are: Re-write rules, The key terms used are: competence,
phrase structure rules, transformation performance, deep and surface structure
rules and Kernel sentences. and language acquisition device.

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 Case Grammar

Case Grammar is an influential grammatical analysis that emerged out of TGG. It was
devised in the late 1960s by the US linguist Charles Fillmore (1929). It is primarily a
reaction against the STANDARD-THEORY analysis of sentences, where notions such as
SUBJECT, OBJECT, etc. are neglected in favor of analysis in terms of NP, VP, etc. Case
grammar considers semantic information prior to syntactic information.

Fillmore proposed that deep structure of any sentence consists of two aspects:
 Modality: features of TENSE, MOOD, ASPECT and NEGATION, relating to the
sentence as a whole.
 Proposition: within which the VERB is considered central, and the various
semantic roles that ELEMENTS of structure can have are listed with reference to
it, and categorized as cases). (Bagha, 2009)
Grammar case is a form of grammar in which the structure of sentences is analyzed
in terms of semantic case relationships. The list of cases and their definitions reads as
follows:
1. Agentive: instigator of the action, animate

Example: Johnagent opened the door with the key

2. Instrumental: force or object causing action or state

Example: The keyinstrument opened the door.

3. Dative: object/being affected by a state or action

Example: the movie pleased john

4. Factitive: object/being resulting from the action or state
Example: Mary made a dream
5. Locative: spatial orientation of the action

Example: we live in China

6. Objective: semantically most neutral case (the case of anything presented by a
noun its role is identified by the semantic interpretation of the verb)
Example: The door is opened
In case grammar the verb is the most important part of the sentence, and has a
number of semantic relationships with various noun phrases. These relationships are
called cases. Case grammar analyses the surface syntactic structure of sentences by
studying the combinations of deep cases (semantic roles) which are determined by a
specific verb. Thus, case frame describes important aspects of semantic valency of verbs,
adjectives and nouns.
Example: John (A) gave (VP) money (O) to the school (B)
The verb “give” requires: Agent, direct object and benefactor

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 Communicative Competence

Communicative competence can be defined as the ability to use language, or to

communicate, in a culturally-appropriate manner in order to make meaning and
accomplish social tasks with efficacy and fluency through extended interactions (Tarvin,
2014).
Chomsky (1965) distinguished between “competence” (the speaker-hearer’s
knowledge of his language) and performance (the actual use of language in concrete
situations). Chomsky (1965) stated that “A grammar of a language purports to be a
description of the ideal speaker hearer’s intrinsic competence” (p. 4). Chomsky restricted
the meaning of competence in linguistic or grammatical competence and its role to
produce grammatical and well-formed sentences.
However, it is clear that some linguistically correct sentences are not suitable for some
contexts, and they cause failure in communication.
e.g. - Hi, guy / Good morning sir

- His mother / his female parent

- I won’t go with you/ I’m afraid I can’t go with you

- Give me a pay rise / I was wondering if it is possible to give me a pay rise.

Hymes (1972) reacts against Chomsky’s definition of competence which “omits

almost everything of sociocultural significance” (p. 280). According to Hymes (1972),
someone’s competence not only reflects their knowledge of language forms and
structures, but also refers to the way they use language in real social situations.
Therefore, communicative competence is the combination between:
 speakers’ knowledge of linguistic rules
 speaker’s knowledge of sociolinguistic rules
 speaker’s ability to use this knowledge in interaction.

Hymes (1972) suggested four different ways of language use in social contexts:
1. Formally possible: The linguistic system allows a given combination of sounds
and words to be judged as grammatically acceptable. For example, someone
might say “Oh you don’t say it like that” as a response to a particular language use,
and “Oh we don’t do that sort of thing around here” as a reaction to a specific
cultural behavior. Formally impossible language use is considered ungrammatical
(Van Compernolle, 2014).
2. Feasibility: refers to psycholinguistic dimension of a speaker’s capacity such as
memory limitation and comprehension to process possible formal utterances
either in production or comprehension (Van Compernolle, 2014). For example:
in a pharmacy patient consultation context, due to memory limitation, it might not
be feasible for a patient to repeat precisely the instructions the pharmacist has
given to him or her. Likewise, the pharmacist may not find it feasible to diagnose
the patient due to his lack of medical expertise to do so (Young 2008).

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 3. Appropriateness: The sociolinguistic and pragmatic effectiveness of a given
utterance that is formally possible and feasible in relation to a context it is used
(Van Compernolle, 2014). Certain language use may or may not be appropriate for
someone in a particular context. For example, many will not find it inappropriate
when they hear a three-year-old scream “I Hate You Mommy!” at his mother when
the mother refused to allow him to eat his candy (Young 2008).
4. What is actually performed: probabilistic rules of language use that decide
“which subset of formally possible, feasible and appropriate utterances” will be
used by participants in a particular speech context (Van Compernolle 2014).
Canale and Swain’s Model
Basing on Hymes (1972) work, Canale and Swain extended their version of
communicative competence to include knowledge and skills a person needs to acquire in
order to communicate. Canale and Swain’s (1980) framework includes three components:
Grammatical Competence, socio-linguistic competence and strategic competence.
1. Linguistic Competence

It is the knowledge of the phonology, grammar and lexicon of the language (Canale
& Swain’s, 1980).

2. Sociolinguistic (Pragmatic) Competence

Sociolinguistic competence is divided into two sets of rules:

Socio Cultural Rules identify the ways in which utterances are produced and
perceived appropriately in different sociocultural situations,
Rules of discourse refer to “cohesion (grammatical link) and coherence,
(appropriate combination of communicative functions)” of a combination of
utterances (Chathamkulam Abdulrahman & Abu- Ayyash,2019)
3. Strategic Competence

It contains both verbal and non-verbal strategies including paraphrase,

circumlocution, repetition, reluctance, avoidance of words, structures or themes,
guessing, changes of register and style or modifications of message (Bagarić, 2007).

Warning: copying, sharing or distribution of linguistics courses is strictly prohibited.

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 References
Abdulrahman, N., C., Abu- Ayyash, E., A., S. (2019). Linguistic competence,
Communicative Competence and Interactional Competence. Journal of Advances in
Linguistics 10: 1600-1616. Retrieved from
https://www.academia.edu/40979745/Linguistic_competence_Communicative_Competence_an
d_Interactional_Competence

Adetuyi C. A. and Olatayo O. F. (2015). Key concepts in transformational generative

grammar. International journal of English Language and Linguistics, 1 (7)

Bagarić, V. (2007). Defnining Communicative Competence. Metodika 8 (1), 94-103.

Retrieved from
file:///C:/Users/ThinkPad/Downloads/Bagaric_i_Mihaljevic_Djigunovic_ENG%20(3).pdf

Bagha, K. N. (2009). Case Grammar: Gramerde Haller . Islamic Azad University-

Astara Branch, Iran. Retreived from http://www.kulturevreni.com/283.pdf

Chomsky, N (1957). Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton

Chomsky, N (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. USA: MITs

Halt, T. (2014). Transformational Generative Grammar: The Standard Theory I.

Retrieved from http://www.philipwdavis.com/halt15.pdf

Hauser, M.D., Chomsky, N, and Warren T. F. (2002). The faculty of language: What is
it, who has it, and how did it evolve? Science 298:1569–1579. Hockett, Charles F.
1955. A Manual of Phonology. Baltimore: Waverly Press.

Hymes, D. H. (1972). On communicative competence. In J. B. Pride, & J. Holmes (Eds.),

Sociolinguistics: Selected readings (pp. 269-293). Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Retrieved from http://wwwhomes.uni-bielefeld.de/sgramley/Hymes-2.pdf

Kies, D. Phrase Structure and Transformational Rules. Linguistics English 1125

retrieved fromhttps://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/linguistics/notes/types-of-transformational-
rules.pdf

Tarvin, L., D.(2014). Communicative Competence: Its Definition, Connection to

Teaching, and Relationship with Interactional Competence. University of Missouri.
Retrieved from
file:///C:/Users/ThinkPad/Downloads/TarvinL.2014.CommunicativeCompetence.%20(1).pdf

Van Compernolle, R. A. (2014). Sociocultural Theory and L2 Instructional

Pragmatics. Multilingual Matters. Retrieved from
https://books.google.dz/books?id=2XnDAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=van+Compernolle,
+R.+A.+(2014).++Sociocultural+Theory+and+L2+Instructional+Pragmatics&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ah
UKEwjSkafPi7noAhWF2eAKHU_eBLcQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=van%20Compernolle%2C%20R.%
20A.%20(2014).%20%20Sociocultural%20Theory%20and%20L2%20Instructional%20Pragmatics&
f=false

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 Warsi. J.,S. (2015). Deep Structure and Surface Structure. Retrieved from
http://www3.cis.gsu.edu/rbaskerville/library/offprints/DeepStxrEmer.pdf

Young, R. F. (2008). Language and interaction. London and New York: Routledge
Yule. G. (2010). The study of language. Cambridge: Cambridge Press.

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