RECTANGULAR COORDINATES

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The position of any given point P is known if its distances from the axes ( x-axis
and y-axis) are given, each being measured in a definite sense, from the axis to the
point. These directed segments are called the rectangular coordinates, or the Cartesian
coordinates of P. The distance of the point from the y-axis is called the abscissa while
the distance of the point from the x-axis is called the ordinate.

Under standard condition, the abscissa is positive it measured to the right,

negative if measured to the left; ordinates are positive if measured upward, negative if
measured downward. The axes divide the plane into four compartments, called
quadrants. To every ordered pair of real numbers, there corresponds one and only one
point in the plane, and conversely.

 Distance between two points

The distance between two points P1, P2 can be expressed in terms of their
coordinates by the theorem of Pythagoras. Let the coordinates of the two points be
P1(X1,Y1) and P2(X2,Y2).

d x 2
 x1    y 2  y1 
2 2

Exercises:

1. Find the distance between the given points.

a. (2, 1), (5, 5) b. (-2, 4), (3, 6) c. (2/3, -1/3), (5/6, -1/2)

2. Show that the points (-1, -2), (5, 4), (-3, 0) are the vertices of a right triangle, and
find its area.

3. Do the given points lie in a straight line?

a. (1, -1), (-1, -5), (2, 1) b. (-2, 2), (5, -8), (-7, 9)

4. Locate the point which is equidistant from (3, 8), (5, 2) and (-3, -4).

 Midpoint of a Line Segment

The coordinates of the point P(x, y) midway between P1(X1,Y1) and P2(X2,Y2) are

1 1
x (x1  x 2 ) y ( y1  y 2 )
2 2

Exercises:
1. Find the point midway between the given points.
a. (5, 6), (3, -2) b. (3/2, -6), (-1/3, ½)
 2. Show that the quadrilateral with vertices (0, -1), (1, 2), (-4, 7), (-5, 4) is a
parallelogram.

3. The segment joining (5, 11) and (-3, -1) is to be divided into four equal parts.
Find the points of division.

4. Three vertices of a parallelogram are (1, -3), (-3, -1), (3, 5). Find the fourth vertex.

 Division of A Line Segment

If the point P(x,y) divides the segment joining P 1(X1,Y1) and P2(X2,Y2) internally or
externally in the ratio
P1 P r
 1
PP2 r2
then
rx rx ry r y
x 1 2 2 1 y 1 2 2 1
r1  r2 r1  r2

Exercises:

1. Trisect the segment joining (-2, 3) and (7, 1).

2. The segment joining (-4, 7) , (5, -2) is divided into two segments, one of which is
five times as long as the other.

3. The segment from (-1, 4) to (2, -2) is extended three times its own length. Find
the terminal point.

4. The segment joining (4, 0), (3, -2) is extended each way a distance equal to three
times its own length. Find the terminal points.

 Inclination of a Straight Line

The angle of inclination or simply the inclination of a straight line is the smallest
positive angle formed from the positive x-axis to the line. It is measured in a
counterclockwise direction from the positive x-axis to the line, and is always between 0
and 180. A line that is parallel to the x-axis has an angle of inclination equal to zero.

 Slope of a Line
The slope of a straight line indicates the direction of the line. It is the tangent of its
angle of inclination and is usually denoted by the letter m. The slope may also be
defined as the ratio of the vertical distance to the horizontal distance between two
points. It may also be defined as the ratio of the directed change in vertical distance,
called the rise to the corresponding change in horizontal distance called the run.
 rise y2  y1
m  tan   
run x2  x1

Note:
1. A line that is directed upward to the right has a positive slope, since its angle of
inclination is less than 90. The larger the value of m, the more steeply the line is
inclined to the horizontal.
2. A line that is directed downward to the right has a negative slope, since its angle
of inclination is between 90 and 180.
3. A line that is horizontal has its slope m=0.
4. A line that is vertical has a slope that is undefined.

 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

If two lines are parallel, they have the same slope; and conversely.
For lines not parallel to the axes, two lines are perpendicular if and only if their
slopes are negative reciprocals.

Exercises:

1. Find the slope of the line joining the given points.

a. (6, 2), (3, -4) b. (-2, -1), (5, 3)

2. Using slope concepts, verify the following statements

a. The points (6, -1), (3, 0) , (5, 6) are the vertices of a right triangle.
b. The points (4, 0), (12, 3), (7, 4) and (-1, 1) are vertices of a parallelogram.
c. The perpendicular bisector of the line joining (9, 5) and (-7, 3) passes through
(3, -12)

 Angle Between Two Lines

The angle from a line of slope m1 to a line of slope m 2 is given by the formula

m 2  m1
tan  
1  m1 m 2

Exercises:

1. If the line L1 passes through the first pair of points, L 2 through the second pair of
points, find the angle from L1 to L2.
a. (4, 3), (6, -2); (9, 5), (6, -2)
b. (1, 0), (2, 6); (3, 3), (-1, 5)
c.
2. Find the interior angles of the triangle with the given vertices:
 a. (6, -1), (3, 0), (5, 6)
b. (4, -2), (8, 2), (7, -1)

 Area of a Triangle
Consider a triangle with vertices P1 ( x 1 , y1 ); P2 ( x 2 , y 2 ); P3 ( x 3 , y 3 ) , the area can be
calculated using the equation

1
A  x 1 ( y 2  y 3 )  x 2 ( y 3  y1 )  x 3 ( y1  y 2 )
2

The area can also be solved with the use of a determinant.

x1 y1 1
A 1
2
x2 y2 1
x3 y3 1
Note:
The formula gives a positive or negative answer according to the motion of the
vertices around the triangle, counterclockwise or clockwise. To avoid confusion, it is
best to arrange the vertices in the counterclockwise order so that the formula will
always yield a positive result.

Exercises:

1. Find the area of the triangle with vertices given.

a. (2, -5), (6, 2), (4, 1)
b. (3, 7), (5, -2), (6, 1)

2. Find the area of the quadrilateral having the given points as consecutive vertices.
a. (5, 2), (4, 3), (2, 4), (-8, -1)
b. (3, -2), (-1, -3), (7, -2), (5, 3)

Miscellaneous Problems:

1. Show that the points (1, 4), (7, 0), (5, -3) (-1, 1) are the vertices of a rectangle,
and find its area.

2. Express the given statements by an algebraic equation.

a. The point (x, y) is equidistant from (4, -1) and (-2, 3)
b. The point (x, y) is at a distance 4 from (5, -2)

3. Locate the point which satisfies the given conditions

 a. Equidistant from (-3, 0) and (1, 4); and at a distance 5 from (-1, 7)
b. At a distance 4 from (7, 4) and at a distance 26 from (2, -1)

4. The segment joining (-2, -3), (6, 1) is extended each way a distance equal to one-
fourth its own length. Find the terminal points.

POLAR COORDINATES
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The point of any point in the plane is determined if we know the length of the
line together with the angle that this line makes with the positive horizontal axis, both
the distance and the angle being measured in a definite sense.
The segment and the angle are the polar coordinates of the point; they are called
the radius vector and the polar angle respectively and are denoted by ( r , ) . The fixed
line is the initial line, or polar axis, and the point of origin is the pole.
The polar angle is positive when measured counterclockwise, negative when
measured clockwise. The radius vector is positive if laid off on the terminal side of the
angle, negative if it is laid off in the opposite direction.

 Distance Between Two Points

The required distance between the points (r1 , 1 ) and ( r2 ,  2 ) can be found by
using the law of cosines from trigonometry.

2 2
d  r1  r2  2r1 r2 cos( 2  1

Exercises:

1. Plot the points whose polar coordinates are given.

a. ( 3, 45) b. (2, -30) c. (-3, 180) d. (-1, -60)

2. Find the distance between the given points

a. (3, 30), (8, 90) b. (7, -20), (8, 100)

3. Show that the given points (1, 30), (2, 90), (-2, 150) lie on a straight line.

4. Show that the given points ( 2, 45), (2, 90), (-2, 135) are the vertices of a right
triangle.

5. Express the statement by an equation. The point ( r , ) is at a distance 4 from

(3, 30).
CURVES & FUNCTIONS
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In analytic geometry, one has to deal with two kinds of quantities – constants
and variables. A constant is a quantity whose value remains unchanged throughout
any given problem. Examples are the coordinates of a fixed point, radius of a given
circle, slope of a given line, etc. A variable is a quantity that may take different values
in the same problem. The variables most frequently occurring in analytic geometry are
the coordinates of a point moving along a definite path.

Let two variables x and y be connected by an equation. If any value be assigned

to either variable, one or more values of the other are determined by the equation; thus
there exist infinitely many pairs of values of x and y that satisfy the equation. Each pair
of coordinates may be represented geometrically by a point. The points so determined
are not scattered at random throughout the plane, but form in the aggregate a definite
curve.

The locus of an equation is a curve containing those points, and only those
points, whose coordinates satisfy the equation. The curve corresponding to a given
equation is said to represent the equation geometrically, while the equation represents
the curve analytically.

 Intercepts on the Axes

To find the points where the curve crosses Ox, one must evidently put y = 0 and
solve for x; to find the intersections with Oy, put x = 0 and solve for y. The directed
distances from the origin cut off y the curve on the x-axis and y-axis, the abscissas and
ordinates, respectively, of the intersections with the axes – are called the x- and y-
intercepts.

 Symmetry
Two points are said to be symmetric with respect to a line if that line is the
perpendicular bisector of a segment – the line is called a line of symmetry. Each of the
points is the image or reflection of the other in the line.

Theorems:
A curve is symmetric with respect to the x-axis if its equation is unchanged when
y is replaced by –y; and conversely. A curve is symmetric with respect to the y-axis if
its equation is unchanged when x is replaced by –x; and conversely.
A curve is symmetric with respect to the origin if its equation is unchanged when
x is replaced by –x and y by –y simultaneously and conversely.

Exercises:

Find the intercepts on the axes, test for symmetry, plot an adequate number of points
and draw the curve on a suitable scale.
1. 3x – y = 8
2. 3x = 10
3. y2 = x + 4
4. xy = 4

 Consequences of the Definition of Locus

 By definition, a point lies on a curve if and only if its coordinates satisfy the equation
of the curve. From the definition of the locus of an equation, one can deduce certain
rules.

Rule 1: To find out whether a point lies on a given curve, substitute its coordinates for x
and y in the equation of the curve and note whether the equation holds.
Rule 2: To express analytically the condition that a point shall lie on a curve, write the
equation of the curve with the coordinates of the point substituted for x and
y.
Rule 3: To find the ordinate of a point on a curve when the abscissa is given, substitute
the given abscissa for x in the equation of the curve and solve for y.
Similarly, one can find the abscissa when the ordinate is given.

 Number of Points Required to Determine a Curve

The number of points required to determined a curve is equal to the number of
independent constants in the equation of the curve.

 Classification of Curves
An algebraic plane curve is one whose equation in rectangular coordinates is a
polynomial in x and y, equated to zero.

x2 – xy + x + 3y – 5 = 0
x3 + 2x2y – y3 + 5y = 0

Any non-algebraic function is called transcendental. A transcendental curve is one

whose equation in rectangular coordinates involves transcendental functions.

y = sin x y = log x y = 2x

 Points of Intersection of Two Curves

In rectangular coordinates, the points of intersection of two curves are points whose
coordinates satisfy both equations. Hence, the points of intersection of two curves
are found by solving the equations of the curves as simultaneous equations.

Note:
The number of points of intersection of two curves is not greater than the product of
the degrees of their equations.

Exercises:
 1. Determine whether the points (3, -6), (-2, -1), (2, ½) lie on the curve x 2 – xy +
4y = 3.
2. Determine k so that the straight line x + 3y = k shall pass through (2, -4)
3. Determine the constants so that the curve y = ax 2 + bx + c shall pass through the
points (1, 6), (-2, -6) and (0-, 4).
4. On the curve y2 = 4y – x + 2, find the points (a) whose abscissa is -3; (b) whose
abscissa is 7; (c) whose ordinate is 6.
5. Find the points of intersection of the given curves.
(a) x + y = 7; 3x – y = 5
(b) x2 + y2 = 25; 3x + y = 5
(c) y = x2; y2 = 2x 5

THE STRAIGHT LINE

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 General Equation of a Straight Line

The equation of a straight line is called a linear equation. The general form of a linear
equation in two variables is Ax + By + C = 0, where A, B and C are given real numbers.

 Standard Equation of a Straight Line

The linear equation of a straight line can be transformed from one form to another.
These are called the fundamental or standard forms.

 Line parallel to a coordinate axis

If a straight line is parallel to If a straight line is parallel to

the y-axis, its equation is the x-axis, its equation is
x=k y= k

where k is the directed distance of the line from the axis.

 Point-Slope Form
The point-slope form is convenient to use in determining the equation of a
straight line when one of the points on a line and its lope are given.

y  y1  m x  x1 
Example:
Find the equation of the line passing through the point (5,-3) and having a slope
of -2.
y  ( 3)  2( x  5)
y  3  2 x  10
2x  y  7  0

 Two-Point Form
 The two-point form is convenient to use in determining the equation when two of
its points are given.

y 2  y1
y  y1   x  x1 
x2  x1

Example:
Find the equation of the line passing through points (1, -1) and (3,2)

2 1
y 1  x  1
3 1
3
y  1   x  1
2
2 y  2  3x  3
3x  2 y  5  0

 Intercept Form
The intercept form is more convenient to use in determining the equation of a
straight line when its x and y intercepts are given. If the line crosses the x-axis at
the point (a, 0), this point is called the x-intercept, and if the line crosses the y-axis
at (0, b), this point is called the y-intercept.

x y
 1
a b

Example:
Find the equation of the line with x-intercept = 3 and y-intercept = -1/2
x y
 1
3 1

2
x 2y
 1
3 1
x  6y  3  0

 Slope – Intercept Form

The slope-intercept form is more convenient to use in determining the equation of
a straight line when its slope and y-intercept are given.
y  mx  b

Example:
Find the equation of the line having y-intercept (0, 3) and slope m = 2.
y  2x  3
2x  y  3  0
Supplementary Exercises:

Find the equation of the line with the given properties. Express each answer in the
general form.

1. passing through (2, 2) and (0, 3)

2. with slope ½ through (5, -3)
3. with slope 5 and y-intercept=6
4. with x-intercept = 3 and y-intercept = -2/3
5. through the origin with slope = -2/5

 Reduction of the General Form to Other forms

 Reduction to Slope-Intercept Form

Example.
Express 3x – 4y – 10 = 0 in its slope-intercept form.

3 x  4 y  10  0
 4 y  3 x  10
3 10
y x
4 4
where :
3  10
m  ;b 
4 4

 Reduction to Intercept Form

Example:
Reduce 5x-3y-15=0 to the intercept form

5 x 3 y 15
 
15 15 15
x y
 1
3 5
where :
a  3; b  5