Models and Prototypes and Facilities for Testing

A 'model' in a wind tunnel will not behave exactly the same as a full sized 'prototype' unless the
conditions of dynamic similitude can be met.

Reynolds number is used for comparison between models and prototypes. Reynolds number is given
ρVd Vd
by, Re = (i) or Re = (ii)
µ ν

where ρ is the density of the fluid (kg/m3)

V is the fluid velocity (m/s)
d a characteristic dimension (m)
µ is the fluid dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)
ν is the kinematic viscosity (m2/s) (= µ/ρ)

In version (i) of the Re equation ρV represents the dynamic forces of the fluid (momentum) and µ/d
represents the opposing viscous forces. Re is the ratio of the dynamic to viscous forces with a higher
value having a greater bias to the dynamic.

For an aerofoil the chord length is used as the characteristic dimension.

Comparisons between a model in a wind tunnel and a prototype on an aircraft in flight

1. Constraints of the wind tunnel
• The model and air flowing over it are in a closed duct. As the model's angle of incidence
increases it acts like a butterfly valve in a pipe, partially blocking it and reducing the flow rate
and velocity. The velocity can be returned to its original value by increasing power to the fan
producing the flow but the streamlines around the aerofoil will be pushed closer together
because of the walls above and below the model.
• For a prototype there is no duct so the streamlines are free to spread without restraint.
2. Reynolds number
There are two Reynolds numbers associated with an aerofoil
1. determines whether the flow over it is laminar, transitional, or turbulent
2. determines whether the boundary layer around it is laminar, transitional, or turbulent.

Ideal testing of models

Models are used to reduce costs of testing to iron out any problems before a full scale prototype is
built. The model needs to replicate the conditions the prototype will meet. In fluids Re is usually a
cardinal condition.

Models, being much smaller than prototypes, will automatically reduce the Re by their scale factor to
the prototype. This could be countered by increasing the velocity and/or using a fluid with a lower
kinematic viscosity, both of which would increase the Reynolds number. However, even prototype
aerofoils would operate at speeds over 100m/s and the speed achievable in a wind tunnel is likely to
be much less than this - especially since it would have to remain lower than about Mach 0.3 to be
considered incompressible.

Using a different fluid to air is a possibility. Water tunnels are used because water's density, being
800 times that of air, produces higher forces and its kinematic viscosity (ν) is a factor of 10 lower than
air's which increases Re. The higher density also means more energy is required to get it moving so
the velocity in a water tunnel could be significantly lower than in a wind tunnel but the gains in
similitude may be worthwhile. It is also possible to pump water to a header tank and let it all rush out
from a great height. It would cost no less and be of relatively short duration but could increase the
velocity significantly for the test. The Engineering building has a 100,000 litre water tank at the top of
the tower which can be emptied in 10 minutes at its fastest but the delivery would be slower with an
apparatus attached. The space for the tank and pumps, the sump under hydraulics lab floor and room
for the 300mm pipes meant this could not be retrofitted to the building - they were part of its design.

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A boundary layer grows over the upper and lower surfaces of an aerofoil. It has its own Re based on
the free stream fluid's velocity and properties but it increases with distance from the leading edge of
the object. Boundary layers remain laminar up to a Re of 1x105 (depending on how smooth the
surface is) then go into a transitional stage before becoming turbulent at an Re around 5x105. This
cannot be scaled but can be made to happen earlier by roughening the surface or using a trip wire to
foce it to go turbulent. Roughening may have undesirable side effects such as increasing skin drag -
but it is already relatively more rough through the scale of the model even if they both use the same
materials. A turbulent boundary layer improves the characteristics of both lift and drag.

These are the properties and flight conditions of the model aerofoil in air and water and the same
type fitted to an aircraft (the full scale prototype). It is assumed water flows at 15m/s but this is
unlikely.

Physical property model in air model in water prototype

chord length (m) 0.25 0.25 1.96
altitude (m) 0 0 2000
fluid density (kg/m3) 1.225 998 1.007
fluid dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2 x 10-5) 1.789 100.05 1.726
flow velocity (m/s) 15 15 140

Derived property
Re (fluid flow) 2.6x105 37.4x105 160.1x105
transitional boundary layer (% chord) 38.5 2.7 0.6
turbulent boundary layer (% chord) never 13.4 3.1

Computational Fluid Mechanics

The use of mathematical models on computers has made the prediction of the behaviour of
prototypes a viable alternative to traditional calculating in many engineering problems, including fluid
dynamics. Providing the mathematical model is adequate they can exceed testing with models in
speed and the ability to show features that would not be seen in a physical test. Computers have
shown features that were not previously known and have been shown to be real and not simply
artefacts of calculations.

Theorists and experimentalists have always had a need for each other. Either one can find something
they believe is novel and it is up to the other to show whether it is real or an artifact. Theories can be
wrong but instruments may also not be precise enough to see what is predicted. Computers are now
required for the mathematics as what is being looked for is small and too complicated to be done with
pen, paper, and a hand held calculator - but even a calculator was a step up not so long ago - much
quicker than log tables and more accurate than a slide rule.

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