A. Porosity as indicated by the dark areas in the lighter denser weld metal. Some are D.

D. Incomplete fusion, less dense area along edge of weld.

spherical and some are elongated.

B. Slag inclusion as indicated by the darker less dense areas. These may be ­located E. Incomplete penetration in root pass. Note higher density created by melt-
along the toes of the root pass. through on the CJP weld without backing.

C. Transverse cracks. F. Undercut as shown by less dense areas along toe of cap pass. The v­ ertical lines just
to the right of center are the wire type image quality indicators. This film has many
other indications that may or may not need further investigation. The lighter spots
Fig. 28-39A-F  Weld discontinuities as indicated on radio- are greater density areas and if viewing the weld shows these have no reference they
graphic film.  © American Welding Society could be scratches on the film and are sometimes referred to as “relics”.

For video of an RT inspection of a weld, please

visit www.mhhe.com/welding.

Red dye penetrant is used on pressure and storage ves-

sels and in critical piping applications to check the initial
weld pass made by the TIG welding process for hairline
cracks. It is often applied to the inspection of aircraft jet
engines and weldments made of aluminum, magnesium,
and stainless steels.
Spotcheck®  Spotcheck®, Fig. 28-40, is a dye penetrant
test for defects open to the surface. Like other dye
penetrants it relies on penetration of the defect by a
dye, removal of the excess dye, and development of the Fig. 28-40  Spotcheck® visible penetrant kit which includes
indication. penetrant, developer, and cleaner.  © Magnaflux
Spotcheck® dye penetrant is a highly sensitive process.
Small cracks show up against the white developer back- Spotcheck® is used on almost all materials. Examples
ground. It locates cracks, pores, leaks, and seams invisible include steel, aluminum, brass, carbides, glass, and plas-
to the unaided eye. It marks them clearly and distinctly in tics. Figure 28-41A and B, page 910 shows inspections
red, right on the part of material. with Spotcheck®. Spotcheck® readily locates such defects

Joint Design, Testing, and Inspection   Chapter 28    909

Fig. 28-41A  Applying Spotcheck®.  © Magnaflux
Fig. 28-41B  Spotcheck® of a welded joint.  © Magnaflux
as cracks from shrinkage, fatigue, grinding, heat treating,
porosity, and cold shuts. It also points out seam defects and
forging laps and bursts, as well as lack of bond between
joined metals and through-leaks in welds. Spotcheck® is
particularly recommended for the testing of moderate
numbers of medium-to-small parts.
Spotcheck® offers the following advantages:
•• Complete portability for critical inspection at remote
shop or field locations
•• Fast inspection of small, critical sections suspected of
being defective
•• Ease of application and dependable interpretation of
results
•• Low initial investment and low per-part cost in moder-
ate volume uses
910   Chapter 28   Joint Design, Testing, and Inspection
Fig. 28-42  Preparing the nose wheel fork of an aircraft for
fluorescent penetrant. Note the black light in the inspection kit.
© Magnaflux
Fluorescent Penetrant Fluorescent penetrants may be
used instead of the red dye penetrant, and the technique is
similar to that used in the dye method. The treated metal
surface is examined under ultraviolet or black light in
semidarkness. This method is referred to as fluorescent
penetrant inspection. The sharp contrast between the flu-
orescent material and the base or weld metal background
clearly indicates cracks or other defects in the metal.
Fluorescent penetrant is most useful for leak detection in
lined or clad vessels. It is also used for brazed joints. The
joint in Fig. 28-42 is being cleaned in preparation for fluo-
rescent inspection.
Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic inspection is a nondestructive test method. Ul-
trasonic inspection is rapid and has the ability to probe
deeply without damaging the weldment (200  inches).
Because it can be closely controlled, it is able to supply
precise information without elaborate test setups. It can
detect, locate, and measure both surface and subsurface
defects in the weld or base metal.
Fig. 28-43  Portable ultrasonic weld flaw detector with built-in trigonometric flaw location calculations with curvature correction and
AWS D1.1 weld rating calculations. It combines a phased array imaging device and a conventional flaw detector into one instrument, with
a phased array probe that allows significantly increased confidence in inspection data. Compared with traditional thickness gauge and
flaw detector inspection, it offers greater probability of detection as well as faster and more reliable scanning.  (left) © Agfa Corporation;
(right) © General Electric Company

Ultrasonic inspection requires considerable skill and 45° Angled Transmitted Beam
Transducer
experience both in its application and in the interpreta- Return Echo

tion of the echoes that appear on the screen. For example,
a properly welded backing ring may produce the same
pattern as a weld with unacceptable lack of penetration
or root cracking. Only a highly experienced inspector
may be able to tell the difference between serious defects
and normal weld conditions. This disadvantage limits its
application. Many companies use this method to locate
defects and then apply the radiographic method to those
areas that are doubtful.
Ultrasonic testing is done by means of an electrically
timed wave that is similar to a sound wave, but of higher
pitch and frequency. The term ultrasonic comes from the
fact that these frequencies are above those heard by the
human ear. The ultrasonic waves are passed through the
material being tested and are reflected back by any density
change. Three basic types of waves are used: shear (angle)
beams, longitudinal (straight) beams for surface and sub-
surface flaws, and surface waves for surface breaks and
cracks. The waves are generated by a unit similar to a high
fidelity amplifier, to which a search unit is attached. The
reflected signals appear on a screen as vertical reflections
of the horizontal baseline, Fig. 28-43. Figure 28-44 shows
an example of a butt joint.
The search unit is called a transducer. The transducer
contains a piezoelectric device that converts electric en-
ergy into mechanical energy (sound) and then converts the
mechanical energy (sound) back into an electric signal.
This electric signal can be displayed on the older cathode
ray tube (CRT) or the newer liquid crystal display (LCD).
Couplant
Internal
Discontinuity
Fig. 28-44  A CJP weld on a V-groove butt joint being ­inspected
with an angle transducer.
The search unit must be closely coupled to the part to be
inspected. This is done with a couplent material.
When the search unit is applied to the material, two
reference pips appear on the screen. The first pip is the
echo from the surface contacted (referred to as the main
bang), and the second pip is the echo from the bottom
or opposite surface of the material. The distance between
these pips is carefully calibrated, and this pattern indi-
cates that the material is in satisfactory condition. When a
defect is picked up by the search unit, it produces a third
pip, which registers on the screen between the first and
second pip (Fig. 28-45, page 912) since the flaw must be
located between the top and bottom surfaces of the mate-
rial. The distance between the pips and the relative height
indicate the location and the severity of the discontinu-
ity. An angle sound beam can also be used as shown in
Fig. 28-44. Great advancements have been made in auto-
mated UT inspection using technology referred to as time
of flight defraction (TOFD) and phase array.

Joint Design, Testing, and Inspection   Chapter 28    911

 Rear
Surface
Main Bang Echo
Reflections
from Internal
Discontinuity

Fig. 28-46  This code-compliant conventional ultrasonic flaw

detector can also perform weld or phased array inspections utilizing
simple menu-driven interfaces. Training can be minimal and these
systems can solve very demanding inspection applications in less
time at affordable pricing. This UT technician is performing critical
inspection on a piping system in a petrochemical plant.  © David Mack

Fig. 28-45  Short pulses appear as pips and register on the

ultrasonic testing screen.

This method of testing is finding increased use by the

piping industry not only for detecting defects, but also for
checking on the progress of corrosion and wear by tak-
ing periodic measurements of metal thickness. As the
pipe material is reduced in thickness by corrosion and
wear, the two pips move closer together, and the rate of
deterioration can be measured. Applications of ultrasonic
testing in both field and shop are shown in Figs. 28-46
through 28-48.

For video of automated UT testing on a

pipeline, please visit www.mhhe.com/welding.
The flaw (indication) must be compared to the accep-
tance criteria. It will remain a discontinuity unless it ex-
ceeds the acceptance criteria, which would cause it to be
termed a defect. The defect would need to be repaired and
reinspected or the weldment replaced. In some instances
even though the discontinuity exceeds the acceptance cri-
teria, many codes allow the engineer of record to accept
the weldment. This would only be done after the engi-
neer conducted appropriate review of the criticality of the
Fig. 28-47  Ultrasonic testing of a weld in a large steel beam in
the field.  © Agfa Corporation
discontinuity. This may require further testing by fracture
mechanics analysis to determine if the weldment is fit for
purpose.
Eddy Current Testing
Like magnetic particle testing, the eddy current method
makes use of electromagnetic energy to detect defects in

912   Chapter 28   Joint Design, Testing, and Inspection

Fig. 28-48  Using portable ultrasonic instrument to check a
structural weld on the seventy-sixth floor of the John Hancock
Building in Chicago.  © Magnaflux

the material. Testing equipment is shown in Figs. 28-49

and 28-50.
When a coil that has been energized with alternating
current at high frequency is brought close to a conductive
material, it will produce eddy currents in the material. Eddy
currents are secondary currents induced in a conductor (in Fig. 28-49  Eddy current testing for industrial applications requir-
this case the metal being tested). Eddy currents are caused ing surface and subsurface crack detection and metal sorting. This
by a variation in the magnetic field. A search coil is used in method and equipment can deliver productivity, quality, and safety in
addition to the energizing coil. The search coil may be con- a very portable unit.  Randy Montoya/US Coast Guard
nected to meters, recorders, liquid crystal displays, or oscil-
loscopes, which pick up the signals from the weldment. A Horseshoe
Pancake Pencil-Point or U-Shape Tangent
level of individual current or voltage is noted for the mate- Probe Probe Coil Coil
rial. Any defect in the material distorts the magnetic field
and is indicated on the recording instrument. The size of
the defect is shown by the amount of this change.
For example, in the inspection of butt-welded tubing, Core
the tubing is passed through the energizing coil to induce
an a.c. eddy current in the tube. The search coil also circles
the tube. This coil is connected to a sensitive instrument.
The eddy currents induced in the tubing induce eddy cur-
Eddy Current Flow Eddy Current Flow
rents in the search coil, and the meter records the current
or voltage in the coil. If the tube is sound throughout, a
steady level of current or voltage is induced in the search
coil and the meter reading holds steady. A flaw in the tub- Weld

ing distorts the magnetic field induced in the tubing by the

energizing coil. When the flow passes within range of the
search coil, the needle on the search meter moves.
The eddy current method is suitable for both fer-
rous and nonferrous materials, and it is being used
extensively in testing welded tubing, pipe, and rails
Fig. 28-50  Typical eddy current surface prods for the
­examination of welds.  American Welding Society (AWS) B1.10M/
B1.10:2009, Guide for Nondestructive Examinations of Welds, Fig 28,
p. 25

Joint Design, Testing, and Inspection   Chapter 28    913


Fig. 28-51  Valve spring wire is tested on a compact eddy current testing line
with an encircling, through-type coil and rotating scanning probes. The test line
also contains a demagnetization system and a flaw marking system.  © Foerster
Instruments
Fig. 28-52  Eddy current system for testing rails for surface flaws with a
rotating disk and shape-adapted segment coils.  © Foerster Instruments
Figs. 28-51 and 28-52. It can determine the physical char-
acteristics of a material, the wall thickness in tubing, and
the thickness of various coatings. It can check for porosity,
slag inclusions, cracks, and incomplete fusion. Testing of
tubing on a factory production line may be accomplished
at a rate of approximately 3,000 feet per minute.
Eddy current testing is only good up to approximately
3
⁄16-inch thickness, and calibration blocks are required for
all the types of weld material to be inspected. These two
areas limit its use.
Leak Tests
Leak tests are made by means of pneumatic or hydraulic Fig. 28-53  A piping unit that has been subjected to hydraulic
pressure. A load is applied that is equal to or greater than testing. The weld failed at 6,200 p.s.i.  © Crane Co.
914   Chapter 28   Joint Design, Testing, and Inspection
that expected in service. If the test is to determine
leakage, it is not necessary to test beyond the
working load of the weldment. If, however, failure
of the weldment might cause great property loss
or personal injury, the test pressure applied usu-
ally exceeds the working pressure. This method
of testing is usually used to test pressure vessels
and pipelines. If used as a destructive method,
pressure is applied until the unit bursts, Fig. 28-53.
Water is usually used to test for leaks, but
very small leaks are not always detected. When
air or oil of low viscosity is used, it indicates
leaks that water cannot. Hydrogen will leak
where oil will not, but hydrogen is a fire hazard
and must be used with great care.
In cases where a leak would be critical, he-
lium can be used. Helium can detect very small
leaks safely. Helium, like hydrogen, is a very
small atom.
When the expansive force of air or gas is high,
adequate safety measures must be taken to guard
against explosion. When air or gas is used, the
weld seam may be painted with liquid soap or an-
other chemical solution to cause the formation of
bubbles at the point of leakage. Small tanks may
be immersed in a water or liquid bath. On work
that is of a critical nature, the pressure should be
held for a period of time and the pressure noted
on a gauge that is connected to the vessel.
NDT Process Comparison
The welding student is urged to study Tables 28-4
through 28-7, pages 915–917. In Chapter 4 you
 Table 28-4 Discontinuities Commonly Encountered with Welding Processes

Incomplete
Incomplete Joint
Welding Process Cracks Fusion Penetration Overlap Porosity Slag Undercut

Arc
EGW—Electrogas welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
GTAW—Gas tungsten arc welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
PAW—Plasma arc welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
SAW—Submerged arc welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
SW—Stud welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
CAW—Carbon arc welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
FCAW—Flux cored arc welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
GMAW—Gas metal arc welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
SMAW—Shielded metal arc welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
Oxyfuel Gas
OAW—Oxyacetylene welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
OHW—Oxyhydrogen welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
PGW—Pressure gas welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
Resistance
PW—Projection welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
RSEW—Resistance seam welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫1
RSW—Resistance spot welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫1
FW—Flash welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
UW—Upset welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
Solid-State2
CW—Cold welding ⚫ ⚫
DFW—Diffusion welding ⚫ ⚫
EXW—Explosion welding ⚫
FOW—Forge welding ⚫
FRW—Friction welding ⚫
USW—Ultrasonic welding ⚫
Other
EBW—Electron beam welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
ESW—Electroslag welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
IW—Induction welding ⚫ ⚫
LBW—Laser beam welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
PEW—Percussion welding ⚫ ⚫
TW—Thermite welding ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫

1
Porosity in resistance welds is more properly called voids.
2
Solid-state is not a fusion process, so incomplete joining is incomplete welding rather than incomplete fusion.
Adapted from American Welding Society (AWS) B1.10M/B1.10:2009, Guide for Nondestructive Examinations of Welds, Table 2, p. 12

Joint Design, Testing, and Inspection   Chapter 28    915

learned about various weld joints, types of welds, and dis-
continuities found in welds. You are now learning about
the various nondestructive testing (NDT) methods. It is
critical to your understanding of testing and inspection to
tie all this information together. By understanding which
discontinuities are prone to be found with which weld-
ing process, which inspection method is best used to find
a particular type of discontinuity, which type of joint is
best inspected with which test method, and the mechan-
ics of each inspection method, you are well on your way
to gaining the skills and knowledge required for weld
testing. It should be noted that proof of the existence of a
discontinuity does not indicate that the discontinuity will
seriously affect the fitness for purpose of the weldment.
The size, location, and criticality of the discontinuity must
be judged against the acceptance criteria to determine
whether it is a defect and must be repaired or replaced.
Hardness Tests
It is often important to test the hardness of the weld de-
posit or the base metal in the area of the weld. It is impor-
tant to know the hardness of the weld deposit if the weld

Table 28-5 Common Weld Inspection Methods Versus Discontinuities

Inspection Methods

Discontinuities RT UT PT1 MT2,3 VT1 ET4 LT5

Cracks O A A A A A A
Incomplete fusion O A U O O O U
Incomplete joint penetration A A U O O O U
Laminations U A A A A U U
Overlap U O A A O O U
Porosity A O A O A O A
Slag inclusions A O A O A O O
Undercut A O A O A O U

Notes:
1
Surface.
2
Surface and slightly subsurface.
3
Magnetic particle examination is applicable only to ferromagnetic materials.
4
Weld preparation or edge of base metal.
5
Leak testing is applicable only to enclosed structures that may be sealed and pressurized during testing.
Legend: RT—radiographic testing; UT—ultrasonic testing; PT—penetrant testing, including both DPT (dye penetrant testing) and FPT (fluorescent penetrant testing);
MT—magnetic particle testing; VT—visual testing; ET—eddy current testing;
LT—leak testing; A—applicable method; O—marginal applicability (depending on other factors such as material thickness, discontinuity size, orientation, and location);
U—usually not used.
Adapted from American Welding Society (AWS) B1.10M/B1.10:2009, Guide for Nondestructive Examinations of Welds, Table 3, p. 27

Table 28-6 Applicable Examination Methods—Five Weld Joint Types

Inspection Methods

Joints RT UT PT MT VT ET LT
Butt A A A A A A A
Corner O A A A A O A
Edge O O A A A O A
Lap O O A A A O A
T O A A A A O A

Notes: RT—radiographic examination; UT—ultrasonic testing; PT—penetrant examination, including both DPT (dye penetrant testing) and FPT (fluorescent penetrant
testing); MT—magnetic particle examination; VT—visual testing; ET— electromagnetic examination; A—applicable method; O—marginal applicability (depending on
other factors such as material thickness, discontinuity size, orientation, and location).
Adapted from American Welding Society (AWS) B1.10M/B1.10:2009, Guide for Nondestructive Examinations of Welds, Table 4, p. 27

916   Chapter 28   Joint Design, Testing, and Inspection