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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Information</h1>
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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free
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title="Dagbladet Information">Dagbladet Information</a></i>. For the formal
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title="Information (formal criminal charge)">Information (formal criminal
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<div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux"
style="display:none">That which informs; the answer to a question of some kind;
that from which data and knowledge can be derived</div>
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href="/wiki/File:WikipediaBinary.svg" class="internal"
title="Enlarge"></a></div>The <a href="/wiki/ASCII" title="ASCII">ASCII</a> codes
for the word "<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>"
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title="Binary numeral system">binary</a>, the numeral system most commonly used for
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class="sidebar-title navbox-title"><a href="/wiki/Communication"
title="Communication">Communication</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content
plainlist">
<a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a> · <a
href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of
communication">History</a></td>
</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading navbox-abovebelow">
<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_communication" title="Outline of communication">General
aspects</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_theory" title="Communication
theory">Communication theory</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul></td>
Fields</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse
analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mass_communication" title="Mass communication">Mass
communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_communication" title="Organizational
communication">Organizational communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics"
title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></li></ul></td>
Disciplines</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">Public
speaking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interaction" title="Interaction">Interaction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">Discourse</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation
theory">Argumentation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">Persuasion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication
studies">Research</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></li></ul></td>
<a href="/wiki/Category:Communication"
title="Category:Communication">Categories</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-
content plainlist">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_communication" title="Outline of
communication">Outline</a></li></ul></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-
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title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a
href="/wiki/Template_talk:Communication" title="Template talk:Communication"><abbr
title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a
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title=Template:Communication&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r1003042402"/><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse vertical-
navbox nomobile plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series
on <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></td></tr><tr><th
class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Data_visualization" title="Data
visualization">Data visualization</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title"
style="background:#DDFFDD;">Major dimensions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content
mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_data_analysis" title="Exploratory data
analysis">Exploratory data analysis</a> • <a
href="/wiki/Information_design" title="Information design">Information
design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interactive_data_visualization" title="Interactive data
visualization">Interactive data visualization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_statistics" title="Descriptive
statistics">Descriptive statistics</a> • <a
href="/wiki/Statistical_inference" title="Statistical inference">Inferential
statistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_graphics" title="Statistical graphics">Statistical
graphics</a> • <a href="/wiki/Plot_(graphics)" title="Plot
(graphics)">Plot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Data_analysis" title="Data analysis">Data analysis</a>
• <a href="/wiki/Infographic"
title="Infographic">Infographic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Data_science" title="Data science">Data
science</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
style="background:#DDFFDD;">Important figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tamara_Munzner" title="Tamara Munzner">Tamara Munzner</a>
• <a href="/wiki/Ben_Shneiderman" title="Ben Shneiderman">Ben
Shneiderman</a> • <a href="/wiki/John_W._Tukey" class="mw-
redirect" title="John W. Tukey">John W. Tukey</a> • <a
href="/wiki/Edward_Tufte" title="Edward Tufte">Edward Tufte</a> •
<a href="/wiki/Simon_Wardley" title="Simon Wardley">Simon Wardley</a>
• <a href="/wiki/Hans_Rosling" title="Hans Rosling">Hans
Rosling</a> • <a href="/wiki/David_McCandless" title="David
McCandless">David McCandless</a> • <a
href="/wiki/Alexander_Osterwalder" title="Alexander Osterwalder">Alexander
Osterwalder</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ed_Hawkins_(climatologist)"
title="Ed Hawkins (climatologist)">Ed Hawkins</a> • <a
href="/wiki/Hadley_Wickham" title="Hadley Wickham">Hadley Wickham</a>
• <a href="/wiki/Leland_Wilkinson" title="Leland Wilkinson">Leland
Wilkinson</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mike_Bostock" title="Mike
Bostock">Mike Bostock</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Heer"
title="Jeffrey Heer">Jeffrey_Heer</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
style="background:#DDFFDD;">Information graphic types</div><div class="sidebar-
list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Line_chart" title="Line chart">Line chart</a>
• <a href="/wiki/Bar_chart" title="Bar chart">Bar chart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Histogram" title="Histogram">Histogram</a> • <a
href="/wiki/Scatterplot" class="mw-redirect"
title="Scatterplot">Scatterplot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boxplot" class="mw-redirect"
title="Boxplot">Boxplot</a> • <a href="/wiki/Pareto_chart"
title="Pareto chart">Pareto chart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pie_chart" title="Pie chart">Pie chart</a> • <a
href="/wiki/Area_chart" title="Area chart">Area chart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Control_chart" title="Control chart">Control chart</a>
• <a href="/wiki/Run_chart" title="Run chart">Run chart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stem-and-leaf_display" title="Stem-and-leaf display">Stem-and-
leaf display</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cartogram"
title="Cartogram">Cartogram</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Small_multiple" title="Small multiple">Small
multiple</a> • <a href="/wiki/Sparkline"
title="Sparkline">Sparkline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Table_(information)" title="Table (information)">Table</a>
• <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_plot" title="Mosaic plot">Marimekko
chart</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
style="background:#DDFFDD;">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a> • <a class="mw-
selflink selflink">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Big_data" title="Big data">Big data</a> • <a
href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">Database</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chartjunk" title="Chartjunk">Chartjunk</a> • <a
href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression
analysis</a> • <a href="/wiki/Statistical_model" title="Statistical
model">Statistical model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Misleading_graph" title="Misleading graph">Misleading
graph</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r992953826"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist
navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Data_visualization"
title="Template:Data visualization"><abbr title="View this
template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Template_talk:Data_visualization&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new"
title="Template talk:Data visualization (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss
this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text"
href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Template:Data_visualization&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this
template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Information</b> can be thought of as the resolution of <a
href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">uncertainty</a>; it is that which
answers the question of "What an entity is" and thus defines both its essence and
the nature of its characteristics. The concept of <i>information</i> has different
meanings in different contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-Floridi_1-0" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-Floridi-1">[1]</a></sup> Thus the concept becomes related
to notions of <a href="/wiki/Constraint_(information_theory)" title="Constraint
(information theory)">constraint</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communication"
title="Communication">communication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Control_system"
title="Control system">control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">data</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Shape" title="Shape">form</a>, <a href="/wiki/Education"
title="Education">education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knowledge"
title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meaning_(linguistics)" class="mw-
redirect" title="Meaning (linguistics)">meaning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Understanding"
title="Understanding">understanding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stimulation"
title="Stimulation">mental stimuli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pattern_theory"
title="Pattern theory">pattern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perception"
title="Perception">perception</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation"
class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge representation">representation</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/Entropy_(information_theory)" title="Entropy (information
theory)">entropy</a>.
</p><p>Information is associated with <a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">data</a>.
The difference is that information resolves uncertainty. Data can represent
redundant symbols, but approaches information through optimal <a
href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">data compression</a>.
</p><p>Information can be transmitted in time, via <a href="/wiki/Data_storage"
title="Data storage">data storage</a>, and space, via <a href="/wiki/Communication"
title="Communication">communication</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication"
title="Telecommunication">telecommunication</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-
Hilbertvideo2011_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilbertvideo2011-
2">[2]</a></sup> Information is expressed either as the content of a <a
href="/wiki/Message" title="Message">message</a> or through direct or indirect <a
href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a>. That which is <a
href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perceived</a> can be construed as a
message in its own right, and in that sense, information is always conveyed as the
content of a message.
</p><p>Information can be <a href="/wiki/Code" title="Code">encoded</a> into
various forms for <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(telecommunications)"
title="Transmission (telecommunications)">transmission</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Language_interpretation" title="Language
interpretation">interpretation</a> (for example, information may be encoded into a
<a href="/wiki/Sequence" title="Sequence">sequence</a> of <a
href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">signs</a>, or transmitted
via a <a href="/wiki/Signal_(electronics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal
(electronics)">signal</a>). It can also be <a href="/wiki/Encryption"
title="Encryption">encrypted</a> for safe storage and communication.
</p><p>The uncertainty of an event is measured by its probability of occurrence and
is inversely proportional to that. <a href="/wiki/Information_theory"
title="Information theory">Information theory</a> takes advantage of this simple
fact by concluding that more uncertain events, require more information to resolve
uncertainty of that event. The <a href="/wiki/Bit" title="Bit">bit</a> is a typical
<a href="/wiki/Unit_of_information" class="mw-redirect" title="Unit of
information">unit of information</a>. It is 'that which reduces uncertainty by
half'.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
3">[3]</a></sup> Other units such as the <a href="/wiki/Nat_(unit)"
title="Nat (unit)">nat</a> may be used. For example, the information encoded in one
"fair" coin flip is log<sub>2</sub>(2/1) = 1 bit, and in two fair coin flips is
log<sub>2</sub>(4/1) = 2 bits. A 2011 <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)"
title="Science (journal)">Science (journal)</a> article estimated that 97% of
technologically stored information was already in digital <a href="/wiki/Bit"
title="Bit">bits</a> in 2007, and that the year 2002 was the beginning of the <a
href="/wiki/Digital_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital age">digital age</a>
for information storage (with digital storage capacity bypassing analog for the
first time).<sup id="cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_4-0" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input
type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox"
style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-
heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel"
for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Etymology"><span
class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Etymology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Information_theory_approach"><span
class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Information theory
approach</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#As_sensory_input"><span
class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">As sensory input</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a
href="#As_representation_and_complexity"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span
class="toctext">As representation and complexity</span></a></li>
href="#As_an_influence_that_leads_to_transformation"><span
class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">As an influence that leads to
transformation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#As_a_property_in_physics"><span
class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">As a property in
physics</span></a></li>
href="#Technologically_mediated_information"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span
class="toctext">Technologically mediated information</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#As_records"><span
class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">As records</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Semiotics"><span
class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Semiotics</span></a></li>
href="#The_application_of_information_study"><span class="tocnumber">10</span>
<span class="toctext">The application of information study</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#See_also"><span
class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#References"><span
class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Further_reading"><span
class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#External_links"><span
class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Etymology">Etymology</span><span class="mw-

editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Information&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section:
Etymology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a
href="/wiki/Information_history#History_of_the_word_and_concept_"information&q
uot;" title="Information history">History of the word and concept
"information"</a></div>
<p>The English word "Information" apparently derives from the <a href="/wiki/Latin"
title="Latin">Latin</a> stem (<i>information-</i>) of the nominative
(<i>informatio</i>): this noun derives from the verb <i>īnfōrmāre</i> (to inform)
in the sense of "to give form to the mind", "to discipline", "instruct", "teach".
<i>Inform</i> itself comes (via French <i>informer</i>) from the Latin verb
<i>īnfōrmāre</i>, which means to give form, or to form an idea of. Furthermore,
Latin itself already contained the word <i>īnfōrmātiō</i> meaning concept or idea,
but the extent to which this may have influenced the development of the word
<i>information</i> in English is not clear.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a>
word for <i>form</i> was <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF
%81%CF%86%CE%AE" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:μορφή">μορφή</a> (<i>morphe</i>;
cf. morph) and also <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B5%E1%BC%B6%CE
%B4%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:εἶδος">εἶδος</a> (<i>eidos</i>) "kind,
idea, shape, set", the latter word was famously used in a technical philosophical
sense by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (and later <a
href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>) to denote the ideal
identity or essence of something (see <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" class="mw-
redirect" title="Theory of Forms">Theory of Forms</a>). 'Eidos' can also be
associated with thought, <a href="/wiki/Proposition"
title="Proposition">proposition</a>, or even concept.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a>
word for <i>information</i> is <a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BB
%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" class="extiw"
title="el:Πληροφορία">πληροφορία</a>, which transliterates (<i>plērophoria</i>)
from
<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wordreference.com/gren/%CF
%80%CE%BB%CE%AE%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%82">πλήρης</a> (<i>plērēs</i>) "fully" and <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wordreference.com/gren/%CF
%86%CE%AD%CF%81%CF%89">φέρω</a> (<i>phorein</i>) frequentative of (<i>pherein</i>)
<i>to carry through</i>. It literally means "bears fully" or "conveys fully". In
modern Greek the word <a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF
%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" class="extiw"
title="el:Πληροφορία">Πληροφορία</a> is still in daily use and has the same meaning
as the word <i>information</i> in English. In addition to its primary meaning, the
word <a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CE
%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" class="extiw" title="el:Πληροφορία">Πληροφορία</a> as a <a
href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbol</a> has deep roots in Aristotle's <a
href="/wiki/Semiotic_triangle" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiotic
triangle">semiotic triangle</a>. In this regard it can be interpreted to
communicate information to the one decoding that specific type of <a
href="/wiki/Sign" title="Sign">sign</a>. This is something that occurs frequently
with the etymology of many words in ancient and modern Greek where there is a very
strong <a href="/wiki/Denotative" class="mw-redirect"
title="Denotative">denotative</a> relationship between the signifier, e.g. the word
symbol that conveys a specific encoded interpretation, and the signified, e.g. a
concept whose meaning the interpreter attempts to decode.
</p><p>In English, "information" is an uncountable <a href="/wiki/Mass_noun"
title="Mass noun">mass noun</a>.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Information_theory_approach">Information theory
approach</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Information&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Information
theory approach">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a
href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information
theory</a></div>
<p>In <a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">information
theory</a>, <i>information</i> is taken as an ordered <a href="/wiki/Sequence"
title="Sequence">sequence</a> of <a href="/wiki/Symbols" class="mw-redirect"
title="Symbols">symbols</a> from an alphabet, say an input alphabet χ, and an
output alphabet ϒ. Information processing consists of an input-output function that
maps any input sequence from χ into an output sequence from ϒ. The mapping may be
probabilistic or deterministic. It may have memory or be memoryless.<sup
id="cite_ref-Wicker_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wicker-
5">[5]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="As_sensory_input">As sensory input</span><span
class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a
href="/w/index.php?title=Information&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit
section: As sensory input">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Often information can be viewed as a type of input to an <a
href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organism</a> or <a href="/wiki/System"
title="System">system</a>. Inputs are of two kinds; some inputs are important to
the function of the organism (for example, food) or system (<a href="/wiki/Energy"
title="Energy">energy</a>) by themselves. In his book <i>Sensory Ecology</i><sup
id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>
biophysicist <a href="/wiki/David_B._Dusenbery" title="David B. Dusenbery">David B.
Dusenbery</a> called these causal inputs. Other inputs (information) are important
only because they are associated with causal inputs and can be used to <a
href="/wiki/Prediction" title="Prediction">predict</a> the occurrence of a causal
input at a later time (and perhaps another place). Some information is important
because of association with other information but eventually there must be a
connection to a causal input.
</p><p>In practice, information is usually carried by weak stimuli that must be
detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy inputs before they
can be functional to the organism or system. For example, light is mainly (but not
only, e.g. plants can grow in the direction of the lightsource) a causal input to
plants but for animals it only provides information. The colored light reflected
from a flower is too weak for photosynthesis but the visual system of the bee
detects it and the bee's nervous system uses the information to guide the bee to
the flower, where the bee often finds nectar or pollen, which are causal inputs,
serving a nutritional function.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="As_representation_and_complexity">As
representation and complexity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-
editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Information&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: As
representation and complexity">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive
scientist</a> and applied mathematician Ronaldo Vigo argues that information is a
concept that requires at least two related entities to make quantitative sense.
These are, any dimensionally defined category of objects S, and any of its subsets
R. R, in essence, is a representation of S, or, in other words, conveys
representational (and hence, conceptual) information about S. Vigo then defines the
amount of information that R conveys about S as the rate of change in the <a
href="/wiki/Complexity" title="Complexity">complexity</a> of S whenever the objects
in R are removed from S. Under "Vigo information", pattern, invariance, complexity,
representation, and information—five fundamental constructs of universal science—
are unified under a novel mathematical framework.<sup id="cite_ref-7"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> Among other things,
the framework aims to overcome the limitations of <a href="/wiki/Shannon
%E2%80%93Hartley_theorem" title="Shannon–Hartley theorem">Shannon-Weaver
information</a> when attempting to characterize and measure subjective information.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="As_an_influence_that_leads_to_transformation">As
an influence that leads to transformation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span
class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Information&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: As an
influence that leads to transformation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
<p>Information is any type of pattern that influences the formation or
transformation of other patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> In this sense,
there is no need for a conscious mind to perceive, much less appreciate, the
pattern. Consider, for example, <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>. The
sequence of <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a> is a
pattern that influences the formation and development of an organism without any
need for a conscious mind. One might argue though that for a human to consciously
define a pattern, for example a nucleotide, naturally involves conscious
information processing.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">Systems theory</a> at
times seems to refer to information in this sense, assuming information does not
necessarily involve any conscious mind, and patterns circulating (due to <a
href="/wiki/Feedback" title="Feedback">feedback</a>) in the system can be called
information. In other words, it can be said that information in this sense is
something potentially perceived as representation, though not created or presented
for that purpose. For example, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory
Bateson">Gregory Bateson</a> defines "information" as a "difference that makes a
difference".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
12">[12]</a></sup>
</p><p>If, however, the premise of "influence" implies that information has been
perceived by a conscious mind and also interpreted by it, the specific context
associated with this interpretation may cause the transformation of the information
into <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>. Complex definitions
of both "information" and "knowledge" make such semantic and logical analysis
difficult, but the condition of "transformation" is an important point in the study
of information as it relates to knowledge, especially in the business discipline of
<a href="/wiki/Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">knowledge
management</a>. In this practice, tools and processes are used to assist a <a
href="/wiki/Knowledge_worker" title="Knowledge worker">knowledge worker</a> in
performing research and making decisions, including steps such as:
</p>
<ul><li>Review information to effectively derive value and meaning</li>
<li>Reference <a href="/wiki/Metadata" title="Metadata">metadata</a> if
available</li>
<li>Establish <a href="/wiki/Relevance" title="Relevance">relevant</a> <a
href="/wiki/Context_(language_use)" title="Context (language use)">context</a>,
often from many possible contexts</li>
<li>Derive new knowledge from the information</li>
<li>Make decisions or recommendations from the resulting knowledge</li></ul>
<p>Stewart (2001) argues that transformation of information into knowledge is
critical, lying at the core of value creation and <a
href="/wiki/Competitive_advantage" title="Competitive advantage">competitive
advantage</a> for the modern enterprise.
</p><p>The Danish Dictionary of Information Terms<sup id="cite_ref-13"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> argues that
information only provides an answer to a posed question. Whether the answer
provides knowledge depends on the informed person. So a generalized definition of
the concept should be: "Information" = An answer to a specific question".
</p><p>When <a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">Marshall
McLuhan</a> speaks of <a href="/wiki/Media_(communication)" title="Media
(communication)">media</a> and their effects on human cultures, he refers to the
structure of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_artifact" title="Cultural
artifact">artifacts</a> that in turn shape our behaviors and mindsets. Also, <a
href="/wiki/Pheromone" title="Pheromone">pheromones</a> are often said to be
"information" in this sense.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="As_a_property_in_physics">As a property in
physics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-
title=Information&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: As a property
in physics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a
href="/wiki/Physical_information" title="Physical information">Physical
information</a></div>
<p>Information has a well-defined meaning in physics. In 2003 <a
href="/wiki/J._D._Bekenstein" class="mw-redirect" title="J. D. Bekenstein">J. D.
Bekenstein</a> claimed that a growing trend in <a href="/wiki/Physics"
title="Physics">physics</a> was to define the physical world as being made up of
information itself (and thus information is defined in this way) (see <a
href="/wiki/Digital_physics" title="Digital physics">Digital physics</a>). Examples
of this include the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_entanglement"
title="Quantum entanglement">quantum entanglement</a>, where particles can interact
without reference to their separation or the speed of light. Material information
itself cannot travel faster than light even if that information is transmitted
indirectly. This could lead to all attempts at physically observing a particle with
an "entangled" relationship to another being slowed, even though the particles are
not connected in any other way other than by the information they carry.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_universe_hypothesis" title="Mathematical
universe hypothesis">mathematical universe hypothesis</a> suggests a new paradigm,
in which virtually everything, from particles and fields, through biological
entities and consciousness, to the <a href="/wiki/Multiverse"
title="Multiverse">multiverse</a> itself, could be described by mathematical
patterns of information. By the same token, the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_void"
class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic void">cosmic void</a> can be conceived of as the
absence of material information in space (setting aside the virtual particles that
pop in and out of existence due to quantum fluctuations, as well as the
gravitational field and the dark energy). Nothingness can be understood then as
that within which no matter, energy, space, time, or any other type of information
could exist, which would be possible if symmetry and structure break within the
manifold of the multiverse (i.e. the manifold would have tears or holes). Physical
information exists beyond event horizons, since astronomical observations show
that, due to the <a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the
universe">expansion of the universe</a>, distant objects continue to pass the <a
href="/wiki/Cosmological_horizon" title="Cosmological horizon">cosmological
horizon</a>, as seen from a present time, local observer point of view.
</p><p>Another link is demonstrated by the <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_demon"
title="Maxwell's demon">Maxwell's demon</a> thought experiment. In this
experiment, a direct relationship between information and another physical
property, <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a>, is demonstrated. A
consequence is that it is impossible to destroy information without increasing the
entropy of a system; in practical terms this often means generating heat. Another
more philosophical outcome is that information could be thought of as
interchangeable with <a href="/wiki/Energy#Transformations_of_energy"
title="Energy">energy</a>. Toyabe et al. experimentally showed in nature that
information can be converted into work.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> Thus, in the study of <a
href="/wiki/Logic_gates" class="mw-redirect" title="Logic gates">logic gates</a>,
the theoretical lower bound of thermal energy released by an <i>AND gate</i> is
higher than for the <i>NOT gate</i> (because information is destroyed in an <i>AND
gate</i> and simply converted in a <i>NOT gate</i>). Physical information is of
particular importance in the theory of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_computers" class="mw-
redirect" title="Quantum computers">quantum computers</a>.
</p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>,
information is any kind of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/event"
class="extiw" title="wikt:event">event</a> that affects the <a
href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_state" title="Thermodynamic state">state</a> of a <a
href="/wiki/Dynamical_system" title="Dynamical system">dynamic system</a> that can
interpret the information.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline"
id="Technologically_mediated_information">Technologically mediated
information</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-
Technologically mediated information">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a
href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></div>
<p>It is estimated that the world's technological capacity to store information
grew from 2.6 (optimally compressed) <a href="/wiki/Exabytes" class="mw-redirect"
title="Exabytes">exabytes</a> in 1986 – which is the informational equivalent to
less than one 730-MB <a href="/wiki/CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a> per person
(539 MB per person) – to 295 (optimally compressed) <a href="/wiki/Exabytes"
class="mw-redirect" title="Exabytes">exabytes</a> in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-
HilbertLopez2011_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-
4">[4]</a></sup> This is the informational equivalent of almost 61 <a
href="/wiki/CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a> per person in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-
2">[2]</a></sup>
</p><p>The world's combined technological capacity to receive information through
one-way <a href="/wiki/Broadcast" class="mw-redirect"
title="Broadcast">broadcast</a> networks was the informational equivalent of 174 <a
href="/wiki/Newspaper" title="Newspaper">newspapers</a> per person per day in
2007.<sup id="cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
HilbertLopez2011-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>The world's combined effective capacity to exchange information through two-
way <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication"
title="Telecommunication">telecommunication</a> networks was the informational
equivalent of 6 newspapers per person per day in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-
2">[2]</a></sup>
</p><p>As of 2007, an estimated 90% of all new information is digital, mostly
stored on hard drives.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
15">[15]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="As_records">As records</span><span class="mw-
title=Information&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: As
records">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Records are specialized forms of information. Essentially, records are
information produced consciously or as by-products of business activities or
transactions and retained because of their value. Primarily, their value is as
evidence of the activities of the organization but they may also be retained for
their informational value. Sound <a href="/wiki/Records_management" title="Records
management">records management</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> ensures that the integrity of records
is preserved for as long as they are required.
</p><p>The international standard on records management, ISO 15489, defines records
as "information created, received, and maintained as evidence and information by an
organization or person, in pursuance of legal obligations or in the transaction of
business".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
17">[17]</a></sup> The International Committee on Archives (ICA) Committee
on electronic records defined a record as, "recorded information produced or
received in the initiation, conduct or completion of an institutional or individual
activity and that comprises content, context and structure sufficient to provide
evidence of the activity".<sup id="cite_ref-ica_18-0" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-ica-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>Records may be maintained to retain <a href="/wiki/Corporate_memory"
class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate memory">corporate memory</a> of the
organization or to meet legal, fiscal or accountability requirements imposed on the
organization. Willis expressed the view that sound management of business records
and information delivered "...six key requirements for good <a
href="/wiki/Corporate_governance" title="Corporate governance">corporate
governance</a>...transparency; accountability; due process; compliance; meeting
statutory and common law requirements; and security of personal and corporate
information."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
19">[19]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Semiotics">Semiotics</span><span class="mw-
Semiotics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p><a href="/wiki/Michael_Buckland" title="Michael Buckland">Michael Buckland</a>
has classified "information" in terms of its uses: "information as process",
"information as knowledge", and "information as thing".<sup id="cite_ref-20"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Paul_Beynon-Davies" title="Paul Beynon-Davies">Beynon-
Davies</a><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> explains the multi-faceted concept of
information in terms of signs and signal-sign systems. Signs themselves can be
considered in terms of four inter-dependent levels, layers or branches of <a
href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a>: pragmatics, semantics,
syntax, and empirics. These four layers serve to connect the social world on the
one hand with the physical or technical world on the other.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a> is concerned
with the purpose of communication. Pragmatics links the issue of signs with the
context within which signs are used. The focus of pragmatics is on the intentions
of living agents underlying communicative behaviour. In other words, pragmatics
link language to action.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a> is concerned with
the meaning of a message conveyed in a communicative act. Semantics considers the
content of communication. Semantics is the study of the meaning of signs - the
association between signs and behaviour. Semantics can be considered as the study
of the link between symbols and their referents or concepts – particularly the way
that signs relate to human behavior.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a> is concerned with the
formalism used to represent a message. Syntax as an area studies the form of
communication in terms of the logic and grammar of sign systems. Syntax is devoted
to the study of the form rather than the content of signs and sign-systems.
</p><p>Nielsen (2008) discusses the relationship between semiotics and information
in relation to dictionaries. He introduces the concept of <a
href="/wiki/Lexicographic_information_cost" title="Lexicographic information
cost">lexicographic information costs</a> and refers to the effort a user of a
dictionary must make to first find, and then understand data so that they can
generate information.
</p><p>Communication normally exists within the context of some social situation.
The social situation sets the context for the intentions conveyed (pragmatics) and
the form of communication. In a communicative situation intentions are expressed
through messages that comprise collections of inter-related signs taken from a
language mutually understood by the agents involved in the communication. Mutual
understanding implies that agents involved understand the chosen language in terms
of its agreed syntax (syntactics) and semantics. The sender codes the message in
the language and sends the message as signals along some communication channel
(empirics). The chosen communication channel has inherent properties that determine
outcomes such as the speed at which communication can take place, and over what
distance.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="The_application_of_information_study">The
application of information study</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span
class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Information&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The
application of information study">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
<p>The information cycle (addressed as a whole or in its distinct components) is of
great concern to <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information
technology">information technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Information_systems"
class="mw-redirect" title="Information systems">information systems</a>, as well as
<a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">information
science</a>. These fields deal with those processes and techniques pertaining to
information capture (through <a href="/wiki/Sensors" class="mw-redirect"
title="Sensors">sensors</a>) and generation (through <a href="/wiki/Computation"
title="Computation">computation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Formulation"
title="Formulation">formulation</a> or composition), <a
href="/wiki/Information_processing" title="Information processing">processing</a>
(including encoding, encryption, compression, packaging), <a
href="/wiki/Data_transmission" title="Data transmission">transmission</a>
(including all <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication"
title="Telecommunication">telecommunication</a> methods), presentation (including
<a href="/wiki/Information_visualization" title="Information
visualization">visualization</a> / <a href="/wiki/Display_device" title="Display
device">display</a> methods), <a href="/wiki/Digital_Storage" class="mw-redirect"
title="Digital Storage">storage</a> (such as magnetic or optical, including <a
href="/wiki/Holographic_data_storage" title="Holographic data storage">holographic
methods</a>), etc.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Information_visualization" title="Information
visualization">Information visualization</a> (shortened as InfoVis) depends on the
computation and digital representation of data, and assists users in <a
href="/wiki/Pattern_recognition" title="Pattern recognition">pattern
recognition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anomaly_detection" title="Anomaly
detection">anomaly detection</a>.
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px
auto;"><a href="/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024.jpg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/120p
x-Internet_map_1024.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/1
80px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/240px-
Internet_map_1024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280"
/></a></div></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Partial map of the Internet, with nodes representing IP addresses
</p>
</div>
</div></li>
auto;"><a href="/wiki/File:Structure_of_the_Universe.jpg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Structure_of_the_Universe.
jpg/120px-Structure_of_the_Universe.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="98"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Structure_of_the_Univer
se.jpg/180px-Structure_of_the_Universe.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Structure_of_the_Universe.jpg/2
40px-Structure_of_the_Universe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2682" data-file-
height="2196" /></a></div></div>
<p>Galactic (including dark) matter distribution in a cubic section of the Universe
</p>
</div>
</div></li>
auto;"><a href="/wiki/File:XD_Aolet.jpg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/XD_Aolet.jpg/120px-
XD_Aolet.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/XD_Aolet.jpg/180px-
XD_Aolet.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/XD_Aolet.jpg/240px-XD_Aolet.jpg
2x" data-file-width="837" data-file-height="837" /></a></div></div>
<p>Information embedded in an abstract mathematical object with symmetry breaking
nucleus
</p>
</div>
</div></li>
auto;"><a href="/wiki/File:Attractor_Poisson_Saturne.jpg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Attractor_Poisson_Saturne.
jpg/120px-Attractor_Poisson_Saturne.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Attractor_Poisson_Satur
ne.jpg/180px-Attractor_Poisson_Saturne.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Attractor_Poisson_Saturne.jpg/2
40px-Attractor_Poisson_Saturne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480"
/></a></div></div>
<p>Visual representation of a strange attractor, with converted data of its fractal
structure
</p>
</div>
</div></li>
</ul>
<p><a href="/wiki/Information_security" title="Information security">Information
security</a> (shortened as InfoSec) is the ongoing process of exercising due
diligence to protect information, and information systems, from unauthorized
access, use, disclosure, destruction, modification, disruption or distribution,
through algorithms and procedures focused on monitoring and detection, as well as
incident response and repair.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Data_analysis" title="Data analysis">Information analysis</a>
is the process of inspecting, transforming, and modelling information, by
converting raw data into actionable knowledge, in support of the decision-making
process.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Information_Quality_(InfoQ)" class="mw-redirect"
title="Information Quality (InfoQ)">Information quality</a> (shortened as InfoQ) is
the potential of a dataset to achieve a specific (scientific or practical) goal
using a given empirical analysis method.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Infocommunications" title="Infocommunications">Information
communication</a> represents the convergence of informatics, telecommunication and
audio-visual media & content.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-
title=Information&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See
also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r998391716">.mw-parser-output .div-
col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-
size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-
output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col
ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-
break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"
style="column-width: 30em;">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">Abstraction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Accuracy_and_precision" title="Accuracy and precision">Accuracy
and precision</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-information" title="Anti-information">Anti-information</a>
reduces certainty</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classified_information" title="Classified
information">Classified information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Complex_adaptive_system" title="Complex adaptive system">Complex
adaptive system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Complex_system" title="Complex system">Complex system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">Cybernetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Data_storage_device#Recording_medium" class="mw-redirect"
title="Data storage device">Data storage device#Recording medium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Engram_(neuropsychology)" title="Engram
(neuropsychology)">Engram</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exformation" title="Exformation">Exformation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_Information_Infrastructure" class="mw-redirect" title="Free
Information Infrastructure">Free Information Infrastructure</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_information" title="Freedom of information">Freedom
of information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_and_communication_technologies" class="mw-redirect"
title="Information and communication technologies">Information and communication
technologies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_architecture" title="Information
architecture">Information architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_broker" title="Information broker">Information
broker</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_continuum" title="Information continuum">Information
continuum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Informatics" title="Informatics">Informatics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_ecology" title="Information ecology">Information
ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_engineering_(field)" title="Information engineering
(field)">Information engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_geometry" title="Information geometry">Information
geometry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_inequity" class="mw-redirect" title="Information
inequity">Information inequity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_infrastructure" title="Information
infrastructure">Information infrastructure</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_management" title="Information
management">Information management</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_mapping" title="Information mapping">Information
mapping</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_metabolism" title="Information
metabolism">Information metabolism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_overload" title="Information overload">Information
overload</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_processor" title="Information processor">Information
processor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_sensitivity" title="Information
sensitivity">Information sensitivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_superhighway" title="Information
superhighway">Information superhighway</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information
theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_quality" title="Information quality">Information
quality</a> (InfoQ)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information
warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Infosphere" title="Infosphere">Infosphere</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internet_forum" title="Internet forum">Internet forum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lexicographic_information_cost" title="Lexicographic information
cost">Lexicographic information cost</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Library_science" title="Library science">Library
science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">Meme</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of
information">Philosophy of information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_model" title="Propaganda model">Propaganda
model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_information" title="Quantum information">Quantum
information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Receiver_operating_characteristic" title="Receiver operating
characteristic">Receiver operating characteristic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satisficing" title="Satisficing">Satisficing</a></li></ul></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-
References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-Floridi-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
Floridi_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A short overview is
found in: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r999302996">.mw-parser-output
cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation
q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output
.citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-
gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6
5/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-
limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation
.cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration
a{background:linear-
gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d
6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-
subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription
a{background:linear-
gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a
a/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-
subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-
subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px
dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-
gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4
c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output
code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-
parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-
visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-
maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-
format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-
wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output
.cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-
selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFLuciano_Floridi2010"
class="citation book cs1">Luciano Floridi (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external
text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ak__GBAcHU0C"><i>Information - A Very
Short Introduction</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-160954-1"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-160954-1"><bdi>978-0-19-160954-1</bdi></a>.
<q>The goal of this volume is to provide an outline of what information
is...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt
%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Information+-
+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&am
p;rft.isbn=978-0-19-160954-1&rft.au=Luciano+Floridi&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAk__GBAcHU0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Hilbertvideo2011-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a
href="#cite_ref-Hilbertvideo2011_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a
href="#cite_ref-Hilbertvideo2011_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a
href="#cite_ref-Hilbertvideo2011_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span
class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=iIKPjOuwqHo">"World_info_capacity_animation"</a>. <a href="/wiki/YouTube"
title="YouTube">YouTube</a>. 11 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">.
Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World_info_capacity_animation&rft.
pub=YouTube&rft.date=2011-06-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com
%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DiIKPjOuwqHo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation"
class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DT&SC 4-5: Information Theory
Primer, 2015, University of California, Online Course, <a rel="nofollow"
class="external free" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=9qanHTredVE&list=PLtjBSCvWCU3rNm46D3R85efM0hrzjuAIg&index=42">https://www
.youtube.com/watch?
v=9qanHTredVE&list=PLtjBSCvWCU3rNm46D3R85efM0hrzjuAIg&index=42</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a
href="#cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a
href="#cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a
href="#cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span
class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHilbertLópez2011" class="citation
journal cs1">Hilbert, Martin; López, Priscila (2011). "The World's Technological
Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information". <i><a
href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>.
<b>332</b> (6025): 60–65. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect"
title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Sci...332...60H">2011Sci...332...60H</a
>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi
(identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1200970">10.1126/science.1200970</a>. <a
href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID
(identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21310967">21310967</a>. <a
href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID
(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206531385">206531385</a>.</cite><spa
n title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+World
%27s+Technological+Capacity+to+Store%2C+Communicate
%2C+and+Compute+Information&rft.volume=332&rft.issue=6025&rft.pages=60-
65&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi
%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1200970&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org
%2FCorpusID%3A206531385%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid
%2F21310967&rft_id=info%3Abibcode
%2F2011Sci...332...60H&rft.aulast=Hilbert&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=L
%C3%B3pez%2C+Priscila&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation"
class="Z3988"></span> Free access to the article at
martinhilbert.net/WorldInfoCapacity.html</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Wicker-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
Wicker_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
id="CITEREFStephen_B._Wicker,_Saejoon_Kim2003" class="citation book cs1">Stephen B.
Wicker, Saejoon Kim (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rMu-R3FFG54C&pg=PA1"><i>Fundamentals of
Codes, Graphs, and Iterative Decoding</i></a>. Springer. pp. 1 <i>ff</i>. <a
title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-7264-2"><bdi>978-1-4020-7264-
2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Codes
%2C+Graphs%2C+and+Iterative+Decoding&rft.pages=1+%27%27ff
%27%27&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-7264-
2&rft.au=Stephen+B.+Wicker%2C+Saejoon+Kim&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrMu-R3FFG54C%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid
</li>
6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-
style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFDusenbery1992"
class="citation book cs1">Dusenbery, David B. (1992). <span class="cs1-lock-
registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external
text" href="https://archive.org/details/sensoryecologyho0000duse"><i>Sensory
Ecology</i></a></span>. New York: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-2333-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-
0-7167-2333-2"><bdi>978-0-7167-2333-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
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p;rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-2333-
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=Representational+information
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%2F10.1016%2Fj.ins.2011.05.020&rft.aulast=Vigo&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=ht
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<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Information&rft.atitle=Complexi
ty+over+Uncertainty+in+Generalized+Representational+Information+Theory+%28GRIT
%29%3A+A+Structure-
Sensitive+General+Theory+of+Information&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pa
ges=1-30&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi
%2F10.3390%2Finfo4010001&rft.aulast=Vigo&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=%2F
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al+Behavior
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=New+York+and+London&rft.pub=Scientific+Psychology+Series
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10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite
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<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
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verb: Re-conceptualizing information for cognitive and ecological models"</a> <span
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conceptualizing+information+for+cognitive+and+ecological+models&rft.volume=3&am
p;rft.issue=1&rft.pages=4-13&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi
%2F10.5038%2F2162-
4593.3.1.1&rft.aulast=Casagrande&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F
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class="citation web cs1">Simonsen, Bo Krantz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external
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cid=902">"Informationsordbogen - vis begreb"</a>.
<i>Informationsordbogen.dk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span
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%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Informationsordbogen.dk&rft.ati
tle=Informationsordbogen+-
+vis+begreb&rft.aulast=Simonsen&rft.aufirst=Bo+Krantz&rft_id=http%3A%2F
%2Fwww.informationsordbogen.dk%2Fconcept.php%3Fcid%3D902&rfr_id=info%3Asid
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id="CITEREFMerali2010" class="citation journal cs1">Merali, Zeeya (14 November
2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://www.nature.com/news/2010/101114/full/news.2010.606.html">"Demonic
device converts information to energy : Nature News"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <a
href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnews.2010.606">10.1038/news.2010.606</a><span
class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 May</span>
2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi
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%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Demonic+devic
e+converts+information+to+energy+%3A+Nature+News&rft.date=2010-11-
14&rft_id=info%3Adoi
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15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Failure Trends in a Large Disk
Drive Population. Eduardo Pinheiro, Wolf-Dietrich Weber and Luiz Andre
Barroso</span>
</li>
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web
cs1"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://searchcompliance.techtarget.com/definition/records-
management">https://searchcompliance.techtarget.com/definition/records-
management</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span
class="nowrap">29 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fsearchcompliance.techtarget.com%2Fdefinition%2Frecords-
management&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation"
class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-
comment">Missing or empty <code class="cs1-code">|title=</code> (<a
href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#citation_missing_title" title="Help:CS1
errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation
cs2"><i>ISO 15489</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ISO+15489&rfr_id=info%3Asid
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ica-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
ica_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
id="CITEREFCommittee_on_Electronic_Records1997" class="citation web cs1">Committee
on Electronic Records (February 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://www.ica.org/sites/default/files/ICA%20Study
%208%20guide_eng.pdf">"Guide For Managing Electronic Records From An Archival
Perspective"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.ica.org</i>.
International Committee on Archives. p. 22<span class="reference-accessdate">.
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r+Managing+Electronic+Records+From+An+Archival+Perspective&rft.pages=22&rft
.date=1997-02&rft.au=Committee+on+Electronic+Records&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.ica.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FICA%2520Study
%25208%2520guide_eng.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation"
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id="CITEREFWillis2005" class="citation journal cs1">Willis, Anthony (1 August
2005). "Corporate governance and management of information and records". <i>Records
Management Journal</i>. <b>15</b> (2): 86–97. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2F09565690510614238">10.1108/09565690510614238</a>.</
cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Records+Management+Journal&rft.
atitle=Corporate+governance+and+management+of+information+and+records&rft.volum
e=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=86-97&rft.date=2005-08-01&rft_id=info
%3Adoi
%2F10.1108%2F09565690510614238&rft.aulast=Willis&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rf
r_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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id="CITEREFBuckland1991" class="citation journal cs1"><a
href="/wiki/Michael_Buckland" title="Michael Buckland">Buckland, Michael K.</a>
(June 1991). "Information as thing". <i><a
href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Society_for_Information_Science" class="mw-
redirect" title="Journal of the American Society for Information Science">Journal
of the American Society for Information Science</a></i>. <b>42</b> (5): 351–360. <a
href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291097-4571%28199106%2942%3A5%3C351%3A
%3AAID-ASI5%3E3.0.CO%3B2-3">10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(199106)42:5<351::AID-
ASI5>3.0.CO;2-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
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+Information+Science&rft.atitle=Information+as+thing&rft.volume=42&rft.
issue=5&rft.pages=351-360&rft.date=1991-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi
%2F10.1002%2F%28SICI%291097-4571%28199106%2942%3A5%3C351%3A%3AAID-ASI5%3E3.0.CO
%3B2-3&rft.aulast=Buckland&rft.aufirst=Michael+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid
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inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBeynon-
Davies2002" class="citation book cs1">Beynon-Davies, P. (2002). <i>Information
Systems: an introduction to informatics in Organisations</i>. Basingstoke, UK:
Palgrave. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Information+Systems
%3A+an+introduction+to+informatics+in+Organisations&rft.place=Basingstoke
%2C+UK&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-333-96390-
6&rft.aulast=Beynon-Davies&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid
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Davies2009" class="citation book cs1">Beynon-Davies, P. (2009). <i>Business
Information Systems</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-20368-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-
0-230-20368-6"><bdi>978-0-230-20368-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Business+Information+Systems&rft.plac
e=Basingstoke&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-230-20368-
6&rft.aulast=Beynon-Davies&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span
section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFLiu2004" class="citation book
cs1">Liu, Alan (2004). <i>The Laws of Cool: Knowledge Work and the Culture of
Information</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of
Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Laws+of+Cool
%3A+Knowledge+Work+and+the+Culture+of+Information&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago
+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info
%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBekenstein2003" class="citation
journal cs1">Bekenstein, Jacob D. (August 2003). <a
href="/wiki/Holographic_principle" title="Holographic principle">"Information in
the holographic universe"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <b>289</b> (2): 58–65.
<a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode
(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003SciAm.289b..58B">2003SciAm.289b..58B</a
href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0803-
58">10.1038/scientificamerican0803-58</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow"
href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12884539">12884539</a>.</cite><span
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=
Information+in+the+holographic+universe&rft.volume=289&rft.issue=2&rft.
pages=58-65&rft.date=2003-08&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12884539&rft_id=info
%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0803-58&rft_id=info%3Abibcode
%2F2003SciAm.289b..58B&rft.aulast=Bekenstein&rft.aufirst=Jacob+D.&rfr_i
d=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation" class="Z3988"></span></li>
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFGleick2011" class="citation book
cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Gleick" title="James Gleick">Gleick, James</a> (2011). <a
href="/wiki/The_Information:_A_History,_a_Theory,_a_Flood" title="The Information:
A History, a Theory, a Flood"><i>The Information: A History, a Theory, a
Flood</i></a>. New York, NY: Pantheon.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Information%3A+A+History%2C+a+Theory
%2C+a+Flood&rft.place=New+York
%2C+NY&rft.pub=Pantheon&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Gleick&rft.aufirst
=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation"
class="Z3988"></span></li>
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFLin2008" class="citation journal
cs1">Lin, Shu-Kun (2008). "Gibbs Paradox and the Concepts of Information, Symmetry,
Similarity and Their Relationship". <i>Entropy</i>. <b>10</b> (1): 1–5. <a
href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv
(identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a
rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="//arxiv.org/abs/0803.2571">0803.2571</a></span>. <a
href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode
(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Entrp..10....1L">2008Entrp..10....1L</a
href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fentropy-e10010001">10.3390/entropy-e10010001</a>.
<a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID
(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:41159530">41159530</a>.</cite><span
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Entropy&rft.atitle=Gibbs+Parado
x+and+the+Concepts+of+Information%2C+Symmetry
%2C+Similarity+and+Their+Relationship&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pag
es=1-5&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0803.2571&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A41159530%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info
%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fentropy-e10010001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode
%2F2008Entrp..10....1L&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Shu-Kun&rfr_id=info
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFFloridi2005" class="citation
journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Luciano_Floridi" title="Luciano Floridi">Floridi,
Luciano</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philsci-
archive.pitt.edu/archive/00002536/01/iimd.pdf">"Is Information Meaningful
Data?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Philosophy and
Phenomenological Research</i>. <b>70</b> (2): 351–70. <a
href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1933-1592.2005.tb00531.x">10.1111/j.1933-
1592.2005.tb00531.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect"
title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="//hdl.handle.net/2299%2F1825">2299/1825</a>.</cite><span
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+and+Phenomenological+Res
earch&rft.atitle=Is+Information+Meaningful+Data
%3F&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=351-
70&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2299%2F1825&rft_id=info%3Adoi
%2F10.1111%2Fj.1933-
1592.2005.tb00531.x&rft.aulast=Floridi&rft.aufirst=Luciano&rft_id=http
%3A%2F%2Fphilsci-archive.pitt.edu%2Farchive
%2F00002536%2F01%2Fiimd.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation"
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFFloridi2005" class="citation
encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Luciano_Floridi" title="Luciano Floridi">Floridi,
Luciano</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/information-semantic/">"Semantic
Conceptions of Information"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <i>The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Winter 2005 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab,
Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Semantic+Conceptions+of+Information&a
mp;rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Winter+2005&a
mp;rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab
%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Floridi&rft.aufirst=Lu
ciano&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Finformation-semantic
%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation"
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFFloridi2010" class="citation book
cs1"><a href="/wiki/Luciano_Floridi" title="Luciano Floridi">Floridi, Luciano</a>
(2010). <i>Information: A Very Short Introduction</i>. Oxford: <a
href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford
University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info
%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Information
%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Pr
ess&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Floridi&rft.aufirst=Luciano&rfr_id=inf
o%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation" class="Z3988"></span></li>
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFLogan" class="citation book
cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Logan" title="Robert K. Logan">Logan, Robert K.</a>
<i>What is Information? - Propagating Organization in the Biosphere, the
Symbolosphere, the Technosphere and the Econosphere</i>. Toronto: DEMO
Publishing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt
%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+is+Information%3F+-
+Propagating+Organization+in+the+Biosphere%2C+the+Symbolosphere
%2C+the+Technosphere+and+the+Econosphere&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=DEMO+Pub
lishing&rft.aulast=Logan&rft.aufirst=Robert+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation" class="Z3988"></span></li>
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFNielsen2008" class="citation
journal cs1">Nielsen, Sandro (2008). "The Effect of Lexicographical Information
Costs on Dictionary Making and Use". <i>Lexikos</i>. <b>18</b>: 170–89.</cite><span
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lexikos&rft.atitle=The+Effect+o
f+Lexicographical+Information+Costs+on+Dictionary+Making+and+Use&rft.volume=18&
amp;rft.pages=170-
89&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Nielsen&rft.aufirst=Sandro&rfr_id=info
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFStewart2001" class="citation book
cs1">Stewart, Thomas (2001). <i>Wealth of Knowledge</i>. New York, NY:
Doubleday.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt
%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wealth+of+Knowledge&rft.place=New+Yor
k
%2C+NY&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufir
st=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation"
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFYoung1987" class="citation book
cs1">Young, Paul (1987). <i>The Nature of Information</i>. Westport, Ct: Greenwood
Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Information&rft.place=W
estport
%2C+Ct&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-
275-92698-4&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation" class="Z3988"></span></li>
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFKenettShmueli2016"
class="citation book cs1">Kenett, Ron S.; <a href="/wiki/Galit_Shmueli"
title="Galit Shmueli">Shmueli, Galit</a> (2016). <i>Information Quality: The
Potential of Data and Analytics to Generate Knowledge</i>. Chichester, United
Kingdom: John Wiley and Sons. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect"
title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118890622">10.1002/9781118890622</a>. <a
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Information+Quality
%3A+The+Potential+of+Data+and+Analytics+to+Generate+Knowledge&rft.place=Chiches
ter
%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2016&rft_id=inf
o%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118890622&rft.isbn=978-1-118-87444-
8&rft.aulast=Kenett&rft.aufirst=Ron+S.&rft.au=Shmueli
%2C+Galit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation"
class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span
section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox"
style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-
v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40"
class="noviewer"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-
v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-
Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512"
/></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a
href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/information" class="extiw"
title="wiktionary:Special:Search/information">information</a></b></i> in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<tbody><tr>
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-
Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="noviewer"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-
logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-
Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to: <i><b><a
href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Information" class="extiw"
title="q:Special:Search/Information">Information</a></b></i></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<tbody><tr>
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-
logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="noviewer"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-
Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-
logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-
height="1376" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a
href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Information" class="extiw"
title="commons:Information">Information</a></b></i>.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/information-semantic/">Semantic Conceptions
of Information</a> Review by <a href="/wiki/Luciano_Floridi" title="Luciano
Floridi">Luciano Floridi</a> for the <a
href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASC/NEGENTROPY.html">Principia Cybernetica entry on
negentropy</a></li>
href="https://wp.optics.arizona.edu/rfrieden/fisher-information/">Fisher
Information, a New Paradigm for Science: Introduction, Uncertainty principles, Wave
equations, Ideas of Escher, Kant, Plato and Wheeler.</a> This essay is continually
revised in the light of ongoing research.</li>
href="http://www2.sims.berkeley.edu/research/projects/how-much-info-
2003/index.htm">How Much Information? 2003</a> an attempt to estimate how much new
information is created each year (study was produced by faculty and students at the
<a href="/wiki/UC_Berkeley_School_of_Information" class="mw-redirect" title="UC
Berkeley School of Information">School of Information Management and Systems</a> at
the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_at_Berkeley" class="mw-redirect"
title="University of California at Berkeley">University of California at
Berkeley</a>)</li>
<li><span class="languageicon">(in Danish)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external
text" href="http://www.informationsordbogen.dk">Informationsordbogen.dk</a> The
Danish Dictionary of Information Terms / Informationsordbogen</li></ul>
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style="display:inline-block; padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Topics and<br />
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biocommunication_(science)" title="Biocommunication
(science)">Biocommunication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated
communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conversation" title="Conversation">Conversation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of
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<li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_communication" title="Intercultural
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<li><a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">Journalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy_of_language)" class="mw-redirect"
title="Meaning (philosophy of language)">Meaning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Media_ecology" title="Media ecology">Media ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meta-communication" title="Meta-communication">Meta-
<li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_communication" title="Models of communication">Models
of communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">New media</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_communication" title="Nonverbal
communication">Nonverbal communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">Speech</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunication"
title="Telecommunication">Telecommunication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Text_and_conversation_theory" title="Text and conversation
theory">Text and conversation theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">Writing</a></li></ul>
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style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a
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style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_design" title="Communication
design">Communication design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communication_theory" title="Communication theory">Communication
theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communicology" title="Communicology">Communicology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_communication" title="Crisis communication">Crisis
<li><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Climate
<li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication" title="Cross-cultural
communication">Cross-cultural communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Development_communication" title="Development
communication">Development communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse
analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_communication" title="Environmental
communication">Environmental communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Study_of_global_communication" title="Study of global
communication">Global communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health
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communication">International communication</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li>
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border communication">Mediated cross-border communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_communication" title="Organizational
communication">Organizational communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_communication" title="Political
communication">Political communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Risk_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Risk
communication">Risk communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">Science
<li><a href="/wiki/Technical_communication" title="Technical
communication">Technical communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Visual_communication" title="Visual communication">Visual
<li><a href="/wiki/Closed-loop_communication" title="Closed-loop
communication">Closed-loop communication</a></li></ul>
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style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Barthes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Bateson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Burke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Castells</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_T._Craig" title="Robert T. Craig">Craig</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fisher_(professor)" title="Walter Fisher
(professor)">Fisher</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vil%C3%A9m_Flusser" title="Vilém Flusser">Flusser</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y
Gasset">Gasset</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Gerbner" title="George Gerbner">Gerbner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Horkheimer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Huxley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Innis" title="Harold Innis">Innis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Jakobson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Janis" title="Irving Janis">Janis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Johnson" title="Wendell Johnson">Johnson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/D._Lawrence_Kincaid" title="D. Lawrence
Kincaid">Kincaid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_B._Lippman" title="Andrew B. Lippman">Lippman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Morgan" title="Nick Morgan">Morgan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Ong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vance_Packard" title="Vance Packard">Packard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders
Peirce">Peirce</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Postman" title="Neil Postman">Postman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nora_C._Quebral" title="Nora C. Quebral">Quebral</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Everett_Rogers" title="Everett Rogers">Rogers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilbur_Schramm" title="Wilbur Schramm">Schramm</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_W._Tankard_Jr." title="James W. Tankard
Jr.">Tankard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Tannen" title="Deborah Tannen">Tannen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Max_Wertheimer" title="Max Wertheimer">Wertheimer</a></li></ul>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">Memes</a>/<a href="/wiki/Memeplex"
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<li><a href="/wiki/Mental_model" title="Mental model">Mental model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metanarrative" title="Metanarrative">Metanarrative</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mindset" title="Mindset">Mindset</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li>
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theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Point_of_view_(philosophy)" title="Point of view
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<li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presuppositions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reality_tunnel" title="Reality tunnel">Reality tunnel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Received_view" class="mw-redirect" title="Received
view">Received view</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Schema_(psychology)" title="Schema
(psychology)">Schemata</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_thought" title="School of thought">School of
thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Set_(psychology)" title="Set (psychology)">Set</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_reality" title="Social reality">Social reality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_everything" title="Theory of everything">Theory of
everything</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Umwelt" title="Umwelt">Umwelt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Value_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Value system">Value
system</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"
class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div
style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-
collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col"
class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Aspects" style="font-size:114%;margin:0
4em">Aspects</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table
class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th
scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Bias"
title="Bias">Biases</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-
align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div
style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Attentional_bias" title="Attentional bias">Attentional</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Attitude_polarization" class="mw-redirect" title="Attitude
polarization">Attitude polarization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Belief_bias" title="Belief bias">Belief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive</a> (<a
href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive
biases">list</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collective_narcissism" title="Collective narcissism">Collective
narcissism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation
bias">Confirmation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Congruence_bias" title="Congruence bias">Congruence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cryptomnesia" title="Cryptomnesia">Cryptomnesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_bias" title="Cultural bias">Cultural</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Filter_bubble" title="Filter bubble">Filter bubble</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Homophily" title="Homophily">Homophily</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group
favoritism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Magical_thinking" title="Magical thinking">Magical
thinking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Observer-expectancy_effect" title="Observer-expectancy
effect">Observer-expectancy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Observational_error" title="Observational error">Observational
error</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Selective_exposure_theory" title="Selective exposure
theory">Selective exposure</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Selective_perception" title="Selective perception">Selective
perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Self-deception" title="Self-deception">Self-deception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy" title="Self-fulfilling prophecy">Self-
fulfilling prophecy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Clever_Hans" title="Clever Hans">Clever
Hans effect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Placebo" title="Placebo">placebo effect</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Wishful_thinking" title="Wishful thinking">wishful thinking</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Status_quo_bias" title="Status quo bias">Status quo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotyping</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Change
and<br />maintenance</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activism" title="Activism">Activism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Argument</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_populum" title="Argumentum ad populum">Argumentum
ad populum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Attitude_change" title="Attitude change">Attitude
change</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charisma" title="Charisma">Charisma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Circular_reporting" title="Circular reporting">Circular
reporting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">Cognitive
dissonance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical
thinking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_manipulation" title="Crowd manipulation">Crowd
manipulation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_dissonance" title="Cultural dissonance">Cultural
dissonance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deprogramming" title="Deprogramming">Deprogramming</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Echo_chamber_(media)" title="Echo chamber (media)">Echo
chamber</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">religious</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Values_education" title="Values education">values</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Euphemism" title="Euphemism">Euphemism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Excommunication"
title="Excommunication">Excommunication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fearmongering" title="Fearmongering">Fearmongering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism_(negationism)" class="mw-redirect"
title="Historical revisionism (negationism)">Historical revisionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression" title="Ideological
repression">Ideological repression</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indoctrination" title="Indoctrination">Indoctrination</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media
manipulation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Media_regulation" title="Media regulation">Media
regulation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Brainwashing" title="Brainwashing">Mind control</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">Missionaries</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_entrepreneur" title="Moral entrepreneur">Moral
entrepreneurship</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">Persuasion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polite_fiction" title="Polite fiction">Polite fiction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_engineering" title="Political engineering">Political
engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_model" title="Propaganda model">Propaganda
model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">Proselytism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_manipulation" title="Psychological
manipulation">Psychological manipulation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological
warfare">Psychological warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Religious
conversion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced
conversion">forced</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious
persecution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_uniformity" title="Religious uniformity">Religious
uniformity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolutions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Self-censorship" title="Self-censorship">Self-
censorship</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">Social change</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_control" title="Social control">Social control</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(political_science)" title="Social
engineering (political science)">Social engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence" title="Social influence">Social
influence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Social
progress">Social progress</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_dissent" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppression
of dissent">Suppression of dissent</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic bias</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Woozle_effect" title="Woozle effect">Woozle effect</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a
href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-
odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">Calendars</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ceremony" title="Ceremony">Ceremonies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coronation" title="Coronation">Coronations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural
psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural
psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine" title="Doctrine">Doctrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">Employment</a>/<a
href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfdom</a>/<a href="/wiki/Slavery"
title="Slavery">Slavery</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">Families</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Funeral" title="Funeral">Funerals</a>/<a href="/wiki/Burial"
title="Burial">Burial</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Game" title="Game">Games</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holiday" title="Holiday">Holidays</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Ritual_purification" title="Ritual purification">ritual</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity
(philosophy)</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cultural_identity" title="Cultural
identity">cultural</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liminality" title="Liminality">Liminality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">Liturgy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">Marriage</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Myth_and_ritual" title="Myth and ritual">Myth and
ritual</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oath" title="Oath">Oaths</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage" title="Pilgrimage">Pilgrimages</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Play_(activity)" title="Play (activity)">Play</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rite_of_passage" title="Rite of passage">Rites of passage</a>
(<a href="/wiki/Secular_coming-of-age_ceremony" title="Secular coming-of-age
ceremony">secular</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Rituals</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">Social class</a>/<a
href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">Social status</a>/<a
href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbols</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_boundaries" title="Symbolic boundaries">Symbolic
boundaries</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">Worship</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Groupthink" title="Groupthink">Groupthink</a></th><td class="navbox-
list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abilene_paradox" title="Abilene paradox">Abilene
paradox</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bandwagon_effect" title="Bandwagon effect">Bandwagon
effect</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collective" title="Collective">Collectives</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collective_behavior" title="Collective behavior">Collective
behavior</a> (<a href="/wiki/Collective_animal_behavior" title="Collective animal
behavior">animal</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collective_effervescence" title="Collective
effervescence">Collective effervescence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective
intelligence">Collective intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">Conformity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_theory" title="Consensus theory">Consensus
theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_psychology" title="Crowd psychology">Crowd
psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cult" title="Cult">Cults</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Culture-bound_syndrome" title="Culture-bound syndrome">Culture-
bound syndromes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deindividuation"
title="Deindividuation">Deindividuation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_contagion" title="Emotional contagion">Emotional
contagion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Entitativity" title="Entitativity">Entitativity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/False-consensus_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="False-
consensus effect">False-consensus effect</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Folie_%C3%A0_deux" title="Folie à deux">Folie à deux</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Group_action_(sociology)" title="Group action (sociology)">Group
action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Group_dynamics" title="Group dynamics">Group dynamics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Group_emotion" title="Group emotion">Group emotion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Group_polarization" title="Group polarization">Group
polarization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Groupshift" title="Groupshift">Groupshift</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Herd_behavior" title="Herd behavior">Herd behavior</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hysterical_contagion" title="Hysterical contagion">Hysterical
contagion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_cascade" title="Information cascade">Information
cascade</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Majoritarianism" title="Majoritarianism">Majoritarianism</a>/<a
href="/wiki/Ochlocracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ochlocracy">Ochlocracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mass_action_(sociology)" title="Mass action (sociology)">Mass
action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mass_hysteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass hysteria">Mass
hysteria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mass_psychogenic_illness" title="Mass psychogenic illness">Mass
psychogenic illness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milieu_control" title="Milieu control">Milieu control</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mobbing" title="Mobbing">Mobbing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moral_panic" title="Moral panic">Moral panic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">Organizations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peer_pressure" title="Peer pressure">Peer pressure</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pluralistic_ignorance" title="Pluralistic ignorance">Pluralistic
ignorance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political
correctness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoconsensus"
title="Pseudoconsensus">Pseudoconsensus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Self-organization" title="Self-organization">Self-
organization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_actions" title="Social actions">Social action</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">Social
behavior</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_emotions" title="Social emotions">Social
emotions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social
exclusion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_facilitation" title="Social facilitation">Social
facilitation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Social_facilitation_in_animals" title="Social
facilitation in animals">animal</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">Social group</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_proof" title="Social proof">Social proof</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social
psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous
order</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Status_quo" title="Status quo">Status quo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stigmergy" title="Stigmergy">Stigmergy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarm
behaviour</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/System_justification" title="System justification">System
justification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Viral_phenomenon" title="Viral phenomenon">Viral
phenomena</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></th><td class="navbox-list
navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">Axioms</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Tacit_assumption" title="Tacit assumption">tacit assumptions</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_framework" title="Conceptual framework">Conceptual
framework</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of
epistemology">outline</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">anecdotal</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">scientific</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Explanation" title="Explanation">Explanations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fideism"
title="Fideism">fideism</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gnosis" title="Gnosis">Gnosis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">Intuition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning-making" title="Meaning-making">Meaning-making</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaknowledge" title="Metaknowledge">Metaknowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">Methodology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Observational_learning" title="Observational
learning">Observational learning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reasoning</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fallacy"
title="Fallacy">fallacious</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">Revelation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Testimony" title="Testimony">Testimony</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Tradition</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Consensus_theory_of_truth" title="Consensus theory of truth">consensus
theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Criteria_of_truth" title="Criteria of
truth">criteria</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/World_disclosure" title="World disclosure">World
disclosure</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-
list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etiology" title="Etiology">Ætiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Being" title="Being">Being</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concepts</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">mind–body
problem</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">Cosmogony</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Religious_cosmology" title="Religious cosmology">religious</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">Creation myth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deities</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">existence</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Destiny" title="Destiny">Destiny</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Everything" title="Everything">Everything</a>/<a
href="/wiki/Nothing" title="Nothing">Nothing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">Fiction</a>/<a href="/wiki/Non-fiction"
class="mw-redirect" title="Non-fiction">Non-fiction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Future" title="Future">Future</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Ideas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idios_kosmos" title="Idios kosmos">Idios kosmos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illusion" title="Illusion">Illusions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Incarnation" title="Incarnation">Incarnation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Magic_(paranormal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magic
(paranormal)">Magic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Matter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">Mythology</a>
(<a href="/wiki/Comparative_mythology" title="Comparative
mythology">comparative</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/National_myth" title="National myth">National mythoi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature
(philosophy)">philosophical</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Origin_myth" title="Origin myth">Origin myths</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Political_myth" title="Political myth">political myths</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Otherworld" title="Otherworld">Otherworlds</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Axis_mundi" title="Axis mundi">axes mundi</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of
evil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural
philosophy</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Souls</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spirit" title="Spirit">Spirit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">Supernature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservables</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">Value</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-
odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Æsthetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alms" title="Alms">Almsgiving</a>/<a
href="/wiki/Charity_(practice)" title="Charity (practice)">Charity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">Altruism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_conduct" title="Code of conduct">Codes of
conduct</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Disgust" title="Disgust">Disgust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(philosophy)" title="Ecstasy (philosophy)">Ecstasy</a>
(<a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(emotion)" title="Ecstasy (emotion)">emotional</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Religious_ecstasy" title="Religious ecstasy">religious</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Elegance" title="Elegance">Elegance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">æsthetic</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">Entertainment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eroticism" title="Eroticism">Eroticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Étiquette</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_drink_prohibitions" title="Food and drink
prohibitions">Food and drink prohibitions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Unclean_animal"
title="Unclean animal">unclean animals</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Rule" title="Golden Rule">Golden Rule</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Guilt_(emotion)" title="Guilt (emotion)">Guilt</a>/<a
href="/wiki/Culpability" title="Culpability">Culpability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">Harmony</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judgement" title="Judgement">Judgement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Laws</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence"
title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_law"
title="Religious law">religious</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">political
freedom</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)" title="Magnificence (history of
ideas)">Magnificence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maxim_(philosophy)" title="Maxim (philosophy)">Maxims</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of
life</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">public</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Obligation" title="Obligation">Obligations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Piety" title="Piety">Piety</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Praxeology" title="Praxeology">Praxeology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality
(philosophy)">Qualities</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Repentance" title="Repentance">Repentance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence
(emotion)">Reverence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a> (<a
href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">ethics</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">Sin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Style_(visual_arts)" title="Style (visual arts)">Styles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">Sublime,
The</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taboo" title="Taboo">Taboo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taste_(sociology)" title="Taste (sociology)">Taste</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust
(social sciences)">Trust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unspoken_rule" title="Unspoken rule">Unspoken rules</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtues</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vice"
title="Vice">Vices</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Works of art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrongdoing</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></t
d></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table
class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-
spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div
id="Examples" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Examples</div></th></tr><tr><td
colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div
style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup"
style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"
style="width:8em"><a href="/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)" title="Attitude
(psychology)">Attitudes</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optimism" title="Optimism">Optimism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pessimism" title="Pessimism">Pessimism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Recluse" title="Recluse">Reclusion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Weltschmerz" title="Weltschmerz">Weltschmerz</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em">Economic
and<br />political <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideologies</a></th><td
class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-
width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism"
title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian
democracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communalism" title="Communalism">Communalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism"
title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism"
title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism"
title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Extremism" title="Extremism">Extremism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fanaticism" title="Fanaticism">Fanaticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Globalism" title="Globalism">Globalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Green_politics" title="Green politics">Green politics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Industrialism" class="mw-redirect"
title="Industrialism">Industrialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intellectualism"
title="Intellectualism">Intellectualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Militarism" title="Militarism">Militarism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_radicalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Political
radicalism">Radicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reformism" title="Reformism">Reformism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sentientism" title="Sentientism">Sentientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social
democracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Veganism" title="Veganism">Veganism</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religions</a></th><td class="navbox-list
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_traditional_religions" class="mw-redirect"
title="African traditional religions">African traditional religions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháí
ʼ Faith">Baháí</a></li>
ʼ
<li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Dai" class="mw-redirect" title="Cao Dai">Cao Dai</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cheondoism" title="Cheondoism">Cheondoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_traditional_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese
traditional religion">Chinese traditional religions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic
religions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o" title="Hòa Hảo">Hòa Hảo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Korean
shamanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Paganism">Neo-
Paganism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rastafarianism" class="mw-redirect"
title="Rastafarianism">Rastafarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Secular" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular">Secular</a>/<a
href="/wiki/Nonreligious" class="mw-redirect"
title="Nonreligious">Nonreligious</a>/<a href="/wiki/Agnostic" class="mw-redirect"
title="Agnostic">Agnostic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect"
title="Atheist">Atheist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spiritism" title="Spiritism">Spiritism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tenrikyo" title="Tenrikyo">Tenrikyo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tenriism" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenriism">Tenriism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian
Universalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism"
title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em">Schools
of<br /><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a></th><td
class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-
width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism"
title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism"
title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>/<a
href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical
theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism
(philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dualistic_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualistic
cosmology">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian
school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism"
title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">Hedonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a>/<a
href="/wiki/New_Historicism" class="mw-redirect" title="New Historicism">New
Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a>/<a
href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance
humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism"
title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" title="Ionian School
(philosophy)">Ionian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a>/<a
href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese
philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian
school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a>/<a
href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Law">Natural
Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Naturalism
(Chinese)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism
(philosophy)">Naturalism (western)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic
school">Peripatetic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology
(philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a>/<a
href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pluralist_school" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic
philosophy">Presocratic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a>/<a
href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a>/<a
href="/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Scholasticism">Neo-
Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sentientism" title="Sentientism">Sentientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social
constructionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sophism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophism">Sophism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a>/<a
href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-
structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism"
title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></t
d></tr></tbody></table></div>
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title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row"
class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Metaphysicians</th><td class="navbox-list
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Francisco
Suárez</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas
Malebranche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René
Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur
Schopenhauer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
Hegel">Georg W. F. Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George
Berkeley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff
(philosopher)">Christian Wolff</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bernard
Bolzano</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Hermann Lotze</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich
Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles
Sanders Peirce</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph
Maréchal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig
Wittgenstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin
Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred N.
Whitehead</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand
Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul
Sartre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">R. G.
Collingwood</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V.
O. Quine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M.
Anscombe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson
(philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael
Dummett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">D. M.
Armstrong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis
(philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin
Plantinga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9ctor-Neri_Casta%C3%B1eda" title="Héctor-Neri
Castañeda">Héctor-Neri Castañeda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van
Inwagen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Alexius
Meinong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mally" title="Ernst Mally">Ernst Mally</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Edward N.
Zalta</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of
metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object
theory">Abstract object theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory
(philosophy)">Action theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body
dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism" title="Enactivism">Enactivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism
(metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of
life</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism
(philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" title="Platonic idealism">Platonic
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<li><a href="/wiki/Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">Truthmaker
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<li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and
concrete">Abstract object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li>
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<li><i><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo
sum</a></i></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic
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<li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity
(philosophy)">Identity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li>
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modality">Linguistic modality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Matter</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li>
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necessity">Necessity</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token
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target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast"><a
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goodarticle" title="good article badge"><a
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%D3%99%D1%82" title="Мәғлүмәт – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-be"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD
%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Інфармацыя – Belarusian"
lang="be" hreflang="be" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="https://be-
tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B
%D1%8F" title="Інфармацыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask"
hreflang="be-tarask" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская
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%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80" title="जानकारी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh"
class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-bg"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE
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hreflang="bg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li
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lang="bar" hreflang="bar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li
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href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacija" title="Informacija – Bosnian"
lang="bs" hreflang="bs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li
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href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%8D%D1%81%D1%8D
%D0%BB" title="Мэдээсэл – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-ca"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informaci%C3%B3"
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lang="de" hreflang="de" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li
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href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatsioon" title="Informatsioon – Estonian"
lang="et" hreflang="et" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE
%A0%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Πληροφορία –
Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a
href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informaci%C3%B3n" title="Información – Spanish"
lang="es" hreflang="es" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li
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hreflang="eo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li
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href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enhormaci%C3%B3n" title="Enhormación –
Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a
href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informazio" title="Informazio – Basque"
lang="eu" hreflang="eu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a
href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA"
title="‫ – اطالعات‬Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target">
‫<فارسی‬/a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a
href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information" title="Information – French"
lang="fr" hreflang="fr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><a
href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ynformaasje" title="Ynformaasje – Western
Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a
href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informaci%C3%B3n" title="Información –
Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk"><a
href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA"
title="‫ – اطالعات‬Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" class="interlanguage-link-target">
‫<گیلکی‬/a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a
href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%95%EB%B3%B4" title="정보 – Korean"
lang="ko" hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a
href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB
%D5%B6%D6%86%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Ինֆորմացիա –
Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a
href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE"
title="सूचना – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" class="interlanguage-link-
target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a
href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacija" title="Informacija – Croatian"
lang="hr" hreflang="hr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a
href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informo" title="Informo – Ido" lang="io"
hreflang="io" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo"><a
href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakaammo" title="Pakaammo – Iloko" lang="ilo"
hreflang="ilo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a
href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informasi" title="Informasi – Indonesian"
lang="id" hreflang="id" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa
Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a
href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information" title="Information – Interlingua"
lang="ia" hreflang="ia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-
input_-_ukungeniswa_kolwazi" title="I-input - ukungeniswa kolwazi – Xhosa"
lang="xh" hreflang="xh" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppl
%C3%BDsingar" title="Upplýsingar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-it"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informazione"
title="Informazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a
href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%93%D7%A2"
title="‫ – מידע‬Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" class="interlanguage-link-target">
‫<עברית‬/a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv"><a
href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informasi" title="Informasi – Javanese"
lang="jv" hreflang="jv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn"><a
href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BF
%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF" title="ಮಾಹಿತಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn"
class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-ka"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C
%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90"
title="ინფორმაცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" class="interlanguage-link-
target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a
href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D2%9B%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82"
title="Ақпарат – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a
href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taarifa" title="Taarifa – Swahili" lang="sw"
hreflang="sw" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enf
%C3%B2masyon" title="Enfòmasyon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-
link interwiki-ky"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BB
%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Маалымат – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-lo"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA
%99%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA%99%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%94" title="ສານສົນເທດ – Lao"
lang="lo" hreflang="lo" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a
href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatio" title="Informatio – Latin"
lang="la" hreflang="la" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a
href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inform%C4%81cija" title="Informācija – Latvian"
lang="lv" hreflang="lv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb"><a
href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatioun" title="Informatioun –
Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a
href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacija" title="Informacija – Lithuanian"
lang="lt" hreflang="lt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li"><a
href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infermaasje" title="Infermaasje – Limburgish"
lang="li" hreflang="li" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a
href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inform%C3%A1ci%C3%B3" title="Információ –
Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai"><a
href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE"
title="सूचना – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" class="interlanguage-link-
target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a
href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC
%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Информација – Macedonian" lang="mk"
hreflang="mk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a
href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82"
title="വിവരം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" class="interlanguage-link-
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class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-xmf"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C
%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90"
title="ინფორმაცია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" class="interlanguage-
link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz"><a
href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA"
title="‫ – معلومات‬Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" class="interlanguage-
link-target">‫<مصرى‬/a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a
href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maklumat" title="Maklumat – Malay" lang="ms"
hreflang="ms" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min"><a
href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informasi" title="Informasi – Minangkabau"
lang="min" hreflang="min" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S
%C3%A9ng-s%C3%A9k" title="Séng-sék – Min Dong Chinese" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-
link interwiki-mwl"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anforma%C3%A7on"
title="Anformaçon – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn"><a
href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8D
%D0%BB" title="Мэдээлэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a
href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatie" title="Informatie – Dutch"
lang="nl" hreflang="nl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a
href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE"
title="सूचना – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" class="interlanguage-link-
target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new"><a
href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE
%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80" title="जानकरी – Newari" lang="new"
hreflang="new" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a
href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%83%85%E5%A0%B1" title="情報 – Japanese"
lang="ja" hreflang="ja" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce"><a
href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Хаам –
Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr"><a
href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatjuun" title="Informatjuun – Northern
Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a
href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informasjon" title="Informasjon – Norwegian
Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk
bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a
href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informasjon" title="Informasjon – Norwegian
Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk
nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a
href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacion" title="Informacion – Occitan"
lang="oc" hreflang="oc" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr"><a
href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D2%A5%D0%B0%D1%
80" title="Увераҥар – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a
href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axborot" title="Axborot – Uzbek" lang="uz"
hreflang="uz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a
href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A3%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE
%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80" title="ਜਾਣਕਾਰੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa"
class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-pnb"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B3" title="‫– دس‬
Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" class="interlanguage-link-target">
‫<پنجابی‬/a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a
href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacja" title="Informacja – Polish"
lang="pl" hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a
href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informa%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Informação –
Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a
href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informa%C8%9Bie" title="Informație – Romanian"
lang="ro" hreflang="ro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu"><a
href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willa" title="Willa – Quechua" lang="qu"
hreflang="qu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue"><a
href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC
%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Інформація – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-ru"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE
%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Информация – Russian" lang="ru"
hreflang="ru" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah"><a
href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC
%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F"
title="Информация – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a
href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Define:Information" title="Define:Information
– Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a
href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacioni" title="Informacioni – Albanian"
lang="sq" hreflang="sq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><a
href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nfurmazzioni" title="Nfurmazzioni – Sicilian"
lang="scn" hreflang="scn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si"><a
href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AD
%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%94" title="තොරතුරු – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si"
class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-simple"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information"
title="Information – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-
link interwiki-sk"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inform%C3%A1cia"
title="Informácia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a
href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacija" title="Informacija – Slovenian"
lang="sl" hreflang="sl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a
href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C"
title="‫ – زانیاری‬Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" class="interlanguage-link-
target">‫<کوردی‬/a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a
href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC
%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Информација – Serbian" lang="sr"
hreflang="sr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a
href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacija" title="Informacija – Serbo-
Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-su"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informasi" title="Informasi –
Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a
href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informaatio" title="Informaatio – Finnish"
lang="fi" hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a
href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information" title="Information – Swedish"
lang="sv" hreflang="sv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a
href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impormasyon" title="Impormasyon – Tagalog"
lang="tl" hreflang="tl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a
href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D"
title="தகவல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" class="interlanguage-link-
target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt"><a
href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D3%99%D0%B3%D1%8A%D0%BB%D2%AF%D0%BC
%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Мәгълүмат – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча/tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-
link interwiki-th"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA
%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8" title="สารสนเทศ –
Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg"><a
href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BE
%D1%82" title="Иттилоот – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a
href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enformasyon" title="Enformasyon – Turkish"
lang="tr" hreflang="tr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a
href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC
%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Інформація – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-ur"><a
href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA"
title="‫ – اطالعات‬Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" class="interlanguage-link-target">
‫<اردو‬/a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a
href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%B4ng_tin" title="Thông tin – Vietnamese"
lang="vi" hreflang="vi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a
href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impormasyon" title="Impormasyon – Waray"
lang="war" hreflang="war" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu"><a
href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%A1%E6%81%AF" title="信息 – Wu Chinese"
lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a
href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9E
%D7%90%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A2" title="‫ – אינפארמאציע‬Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi"
class="interlanguage-link-target">‫<יִידיש‬/a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B3%87%E8%A8%8A"
title="資訊 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" class="interlanguage-link-
target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq"><a
href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enformasyon" title="Enformasyon – Zazaki"
lang="diq" hreflang="diq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a
href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%A1%E6%81%AF" title="信息 – Chinese"
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