3.

1 Type Classification

3.1.1 Classification of Debris-Mud Flows by generating factor

Classification of debris-mud flows by the generating factor is shown in Fig.

3.1.1. First of all, debris-mud flows can be divided into two types. One is primary
volcanic debris-mud flow, the other is secondary volcanic or non-volcanic debris-mud
flows. Primary volcanic debris-mud flows occur directly due eruptions or explosions
of volcanoes. Secondary or non-volcanic debris-mud flows occur due to other than
eruptions of volcanoes or in non-volcanic mountains.
Primary volcanic debris-mud flows can be divided into three types. Mountain
collapse volcanic debris-mud flow occurs due to a large amount of water supply from
rivers by inflow of pyroclastic flows or collapse of mountain bodies to the river.
Crater lake volcanic debris-mud flow occurs due to a large amount of water supply
from crater lakes by collapse of water lakes or overflow from crater lakes. Snowmelt
volcanic debris-mud flows occur due to melting snow covers or glaciers by high
temperature volcanic ejecta.
Secondary or non-volcanic mudflows may be divided into two types. Debris
flows occur due to heavy rainfall. Landslide dam volcanic mudflows occur due to
deposited layers of pyroclastic flows of collapse becoming liquid by break of
landslide dams.
Mountain Collapse (Mt. Saint Helense)
Primary Volcanic Mud Flows
Volcanic Crater Lake (Kelud)
Debris-Mud Flows Volcanic Mud flow
Snowmelt Volcanic (Nevada del Ruis)
Mud Flows

Debris-Mud Flow

Secondary or Debris Flow

Non-Volcanic Landslide Dam Debris Flow
Debris-Mud Flows
Fig. 3.1.1 Classification of Debris-Mud Flow by Generating Factor

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3.1.2 Rheology of Debris-Mud Flows

These debris-mud flows have the common characteristics and phenomena;

containing a high concentration of solid particles and sediment (solid phase) and
water (liquid phase) flowing together in a well mixed manner. They can be treated
as solid-liquid multiphase flows. The debris-mud flows, as solid multiphase flows of
high concentration, indicate the rheological property as shown in Fig. 3.1.2
depending on the conditions.

Where the discharge is small:

Flow where gravel content is large and gravel vigorously collides with each
other (dilatant flow having yield sheer stress)

Mud water-like flow having a small gravel content (Bingham flow)

Where the discharge is large:

Turbulent flow

Fig. 3.1.2 Rheology of Debris-Mud Flow

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 If the particles in solid-liquid phase flow move along with the streamline for
average flow, we call this flow “laminar flow”. If motion of particles in solid-liquid phase
flow is turbulent, we call this flow “turbulent flow”. Concept of laminar and turbulent
flow of solid-liquid phase flow is shown in Fig. 3.1.3. If the discharge of solid-liquid
phase flow is small, the flow is usually treated as “laminar flow”, and the discharge of
solid-liquid phase flow is large, the flow is usually treated as “turbulent flow”. The
concept is important to study mechanism of solid-liquid phase flow.

Fig. 3.1.3 Concept of Laminar and Turbulent Flow of Solid-Liquid Phase Flow

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 Respective rheological properties can be expressed by these equations.
Bingham flow
⎛ du ⎞
τ = C0 + µ ⎜ ⎟ (3.1.1)
⎝ dz ⎠
Dilatant flow
2
⎛ du ⎞
τ = τ y + f (c )σd ⎜ ⎟
2
(3.1.2)
⎝ dz ⎠

Turbulent flow
2
⎛ du ⎞
τ = ρl ⎜ ⎟
2
(3.1.3)
⎝ dz ⎠

Where τ is shear stress due to flow, Co is cohesive component, μ is apparent

coefficient of viscosity, du/dz is velocity gradient, c is sediment concentration, f(c) is
a function of sediment concentration c, τy is yield shear stress which is not depend
on velocity gradient, σ is density of particles, d is representative grain size of
particle (particle diameter), ρ is the density of water, l is mixing length, u
(velocity) and coordinate system are established as shown in Figure 3.1.4. The
constitutive equations will be explained below.

Fig. 3.1.4 Coordinate System Fig. 3.1.5 Relationships between velocity

gradient and shear stress

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3.1.3 Constitutive Equations of Bingham Fluid

Studies on the flow on the flow mechanism of solid-liquid multiphase flow as

Bingham flows have been conducted with respect to the slurry containing much fine
particles and the yield shear stress and the apparent coefficient of viscosity of flows
with high concentration (mud flow) containing silt and clay (Daido(1970), Ashida et
al.(1986),Taki(1986)). The factors governing these flows will be explained below.

Yield shear stress (cohesive component)

(1) Absorption force between particles.
(2) Absorption and sticking of water molecules due to the surface electric charge
of particles

Apparent coefficient of viscosity

(1) Decrease in shear space due to the presense of particle.
(2) Decrease in shear space due to flocculation of fine particles, increase in
bonding energy between water molecules due to surface electric charge of fine
particles.

Actual forms of function of these rheology constants vary by researchers, but

almost the same values are found for the mudflows for which the silt and clay
determine the flow properties. Method proposed by Ashida et al.) will be outlined
hereinafter.

Since electrochemical interactions between particle and pore water and

between particles due to the surface charge of particles are the essential factors
which determine the properties of these in flows containing silt and clay, Ashida
et al. (1986) made models for these interaction and obtained rheology constants.
Particles are almost uniformly dispersed in the flow as shown in Figure 3.1.6
and at same time, are repeating the contact and separation between the particles.
The stress of flow can be expressed by the sum of the stress between particles
accompanied by the contact and separation of particles and stress created by the
shear at the void of particles.
The energy dissipation rate of function in unit volume and time, Φ in two
dimensional uniform flow is defined as follows.

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 ⎛ du ⎞
Φ =τ⎜ ⎟ (3.1.4)
⎝ dz ⎠
Therefore, we can obtain shear stress τ by evaluating the energy dissipation per
unit volume and time. The causes of energy dissipation of the flow are follows;
(1) Interaction between the particles
(2) Cutting bond of dipoles
(3) Viscosity of water

Fig. 3.1.6 Sediment Particles in Hyper- Concentration Flow

3.1.4 Constitutive Equation for Dilatant Fluid

These are two kinds of methodology on the flow mechanism if solid-liquid

multiphase flow as dilatant fluid model from basically different viewpoints.
(1) Shear stress of flow can be evaluated from energy loss due to non-elastic
properties of particles during the collision of particles, or from the energy
dissipation by fluid of the velocity difference between the particles and fluid
after collision of particles.
(2) Shear stress of flow can be evaluated as a component of the repulsive force in the
flow direction due to the elastic properties of particles during the collision of

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 particles.

From studies based on the standpoint of (1), Myamoto’s method(), which

determined the stress by paying attention to the non-elastic properties between the
particles, will be briefly explained.

The cause of the energy dissipation of the flow is non-elastic collision and
friction between the particles. Bagnold’s model is used here as a configuration
model of particles. Energy dissipation by one collision is expressed by

φi =
1
2
( 6
)
1 − e 2 πd 3σ (δu sin α i )
1 2
(3.1.5)

in which e is the restitution, d is the particle diameter, σ is mass density of

particles, δu is relative velocity between the two particles, αi is the angle
show in figure below and δu sinαi means the relative velocity between the two
particles in the directin form the center of one particle to the center of other
pateicle.
Number of times of collision, N, per unit time is
δu du
N≅ = (3.1.6)
bd dz

The amount of energy dissipation Φ per unit volume and time is given by the
following formula as volume occupied by one particle is given (bd)3

Nφ i π
3

Φ= = ( ) 1 ⎛ du ⎞
1 − e 2 sin 2 α iσ d 2 ⎜ ⎟ (3.1.7)
(bd ) 12
3
b ⎝ dz ⎠

Fig. 3.1.7 Impact of Two Particles Fig. 3.1.8 Shearing Fluid by Particles

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From definition of Φ,the shear stress τd is determined as follows:
2

( 1 ⎛ du ⎞
τ b = A 1− e σ d 2 ⎜ ⎟
2

b ⎝ dz ⎠
) (3.1.8)

π
A= sin 2 α i (3.1.9)
12
The energy conserved during particle collision is always stored inside the flow. This
should correspond to pressure pd as expressed as follows:
2
1 2 ⎛ du ⎞
pd = Ae 2σ d ⎜ ⎟ (3.1.10)
b ⎝ dz ⎠

The stress caused by solid friction between the particles can be expressed by
τ y = ps tan φ (3.1.11)
Where ps is static particle structural pressure and Φ is the friction angle. τy
obtained from the experiments is grater than by one order the stress caused by
non-elastic collision. ps and pd are supporting the weight particles in water.

Dilatant fluid model

Shear stress
τ = τ y +τd (3.1.12)

τ b = A(1 − e 2 )σ d 2 ⎜
1 ⎛ du ⎞
τ y = ps tan φ ⎟ (3.1.13)
b ⎝ dz ⎠

π
A= sin 2 α i (3.1.14)
12
Pressure
p = ps + pd + pw (3.1.15)
p s :static particle sturactral pressure
2
1 2 ⎛ du ⎞
pd = Ae 2σ d ⎜ ⎟ p w :pore water pressure (3.1.16)
b ⎝ dz ⎠

3.1.5 Turbulent Flow of High Concentration Flow

In Bingham flow and dilatant flow, as understandable from the deriving of their

3-8
flow equations, the tracks of fluid elements are parallel to each other and the flows
have layer shapes. Energy given to a fluid element is dissipated in the same volume
element. This kind of flow is called the laminar flow, and tracer of the flow (solid
particles in solid –liquid multiphase flow of high concentration) stays in same layer.
The motion of a small fluid element of the solid-liquid multiphase flow can be
explained by the following equation of motion (momentum).
∂u
ρ + ρ (u grad )u = ρg − grad p + div τ (3.1.17)
∂t
If the tracer of flow no more stays in the same layer, that is, if the tracks of
fluid elements are mixed and no more stay within the same layer, the motion of
fluid element can be expressed by sum of the mean velocity u and turbulent
velocity u’.
u = u + u′ (3.1.18)
Since u is the average of u, we can get the following formula:
u′ = 0 (3.1.19)
By considering equation above by substituting equation of u in equation of motion
(momentum), the following formula is obtained:

ρ
∂u
∂t
( ) (
+ ρ u grad u = ρg − grad p + div τ + div − ρ u ′v ′ ) (3.1.20)

Considering the equation of motion for average flow, the term − ρ u ′v′ is

added to equation of motion above. The last term express the apparent stress
(Reynolds’ stress) due to turbulent velocity seen from mean flow.
For clarifying Reynolds stress in solid-liquid multiphase flows, some
knowledge on turbulent construction is needed, bud studies on turbulent
construction for debris- mud flow are still not being performed systematically. Only
several experimental studies have been reported. According them, a slight
difference can be recognized in a developed turbulent flow, but for the practical
purpose Reynolds stress may be approximated by the knowledge on the turbulent
flow of clear water. By approximating Reynolds stress by Prandtlkarman’s mixing
theory, the following is obtained:
2
⎛ du ⎞
− ρ u ′v′ = ρl 2 ⎜ ⎟ l = κz κ :Karman’s constant (3.1.21)
⎝ dz ⎠

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3.1.6 Unified Understanding of the Mechanism of Debris-Mud Flows

From the review of mechanism of debris-mud flow, it has been clarified that
the flow characteristics of debris-mud flows vary depending on the scale and
components (grain size distribution, particle concentration, etc) of debris-mud flows.
In consequence, the constituent materials and scale of debris-mud flows also vary in
the changing processes from the occurrence of a debris-mud flow to the development,
flow-down, inundation and deposition. Thus changes of flow characteristics can be
also considered.
The flow characteristics respectively reviewed will be viewed from an unified
viewpoint, and respective flow form will be classified. From review of mechanism of
debris-mud flow, the space where stress occurs as Bingham fluid is independent
from the space where stress occurs as a dilatant fluid; moreover, since Reynolds
stress expresses the amount of momentum transport, three of them can be added to
a linear type. Then the following formula generally holds true as the fluid equation
of debris-mud flows:

⎟ + A(1 − e )σ d
⎛ du ⎞ 1 2 du ⎛ du ⎞
τ = C0 + τ y + µ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ − ρ u ′v′ (3.1.22)
2

⎝ dz ⎠ b dz ⎝ dz ⎠

Various flow of the debris-mud flows are determined depending on the terms of
equation above which can dominates.

If a steady state of flow is assumed, whether Reynolds stress occurs or not will
be the conditions of classification to a turbulent flow or laminar flow when
preparing the equation of motion for stream line (for average flow). It is turbulent
flow if the Reynolds stress dominates and laminar flow if it is small. Since the
turbulent and laminar flow being considered here have small elements, which have
the size almost equal to the particles contained in the flow, so that the respective
flow has the flow construction as shown in Figure 3.1.3.

Classification of turbulent flow and laminar flow is usually made wit the
Reynolds number of the flow, but the apparent coefficient of viscosity varies in
water depth direction in response to the size if the shearing force. It is more
convenient to judge them based on the thickness of cohesive bottom layer or particle
Reynolds number. That is , by using the following formula as the apparent
coefficient of viscosity of volcanic mudflows,

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 M = µ + A(1 − e 2 )σ
1 2 du
d (3.1.23)
b dz
And the Reynolds number is defined by
ρu m h
Re = (3.1.24)
M
Then, the following domain is classified:
if Re>100, Turbulent flow; if Re<100, Laminar flow.

Where the laminar flow occurs, whether it is Bingham flow or dilatant flow
can be classified depending upon whether the stress as Bingham fluid dominates or
the stress as dilatant fluid dominates. If stress as Bingham fluid is τB and stress
as dilatant fluid is τD , then G is defined as follows:

τD
( )
A 1− e 2 σ
1 2 du
b
d
dz
G= = (3.1.25)
τB µ
The classification can be made from G as indicated below
if G>1, Dilatant flow
if G<1, Bingham flow

3.1.7 Questions about Type of Debris-Mud Flows

① Classify debris-mud flows related to volcanic activity and types of

occurrence.

② Classify debris-mud flows in view of rheology.

③ How is the shear stress of Bingham Flow, Dilatant Flow and Turbulent Flow
expressed?

④ If a debris-mud flow can be treated as Bingham Flow, what is cause of

generation of the shear stress?

⑤ If a debris-mud flow can be treated as Dilatant Flow, what is cause of

generation of the shear stress?

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⑥ If a debris-mud flow can be treated as Turbulent Flow, what is cause of
generation of the shear stress?

⑦ Show the general expression of the constitutive equation of debris flow.

⑧ In debris-mud flows, what is the condition of classification to a Turbulent

Flow or Laminar Flow?

⑨ If debris-mud flow can be classified to a Laminar Flow by the answer of

question ⑧, what is the condition of classification to a Bingham Flow or
dilatant flow?

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