02-08-2015

Data Capture and Projection and

Georeferncing Accuracy

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Source of data
• Analogue data - a physical product displaying
information visually on paper or film
• Digital data - information formatter or a
computer readable file
• Analog: a number of different sources are
available
•  Standardized map sheets
•  Mylar map transparencies
•  Aerial photos
•  Tabular Data
•  Written reports

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Hard disk
Georeferencing

Hard disk

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Parameters for Mapping

• A mathematical model of the earth must be
selected. Spheroid/Elipsoid
•The mathematical model
must be related to real-world
features. Datum
•Real-world features must be
projected with minimum
distortion from a round earth
to a flat map; and given a grid
system of coordinates.
Projection

Elipsoid

A mathematical model of the earth must be selected.

Simplistic - A round ball having a radius big

enough to approximate the size of the earth.
Reality - Spinning planets bulge at the equator
with reciprocal flattening at the poles. e.g.

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Ellipsoid

Rotate Ellipse in 3 Dimensions:

Semi-major Axis: a = 6371837 m Semi-minor Axis:

b = 6356752.3142 Flattening Ratio:
f=(a-b)/a = 1/298.257223563

Different Ellipsoid

Everest Nagarkot
WGS 84
6,356,075m
6356 752m

6378 137m Semi Major Axis 6,377,276.m

Semi Major Axis
Semi Minor Axis
Semi Minor Axis

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Why use different Ellipsoid?

• The earth's surface is not perfectly symmetrical, so the
semi-major and semi-minor axes that fit one
geographical region do not necessarily fit another.

• Satellite technology has revealed several elliptical

deviations. For one thing, the most southerly point on
the minor axis (the South Pole) is closer to the major
axis (the equator) than is the most northerly point on
the minor axis (the North Pole).

Ellipsoids in various countries

•Everest 1830 (Nepal)
•GRS80 (North America)
•Clark 1866 (North America
•International 1924 (Europe)
•Bessel 1841 (Europe)
•WGS84 (GPS World-wide)

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Year Name of Length of seime-axes(m) Ellipticit Areas of

Ellipsoid Major(a) Minor(b) y (t) Use

1984 WGS-84 6378 137 6356 752 298.257 GPS

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1980 Wrs-80 6378 136 6356 752 298.257 IUGG

1940 Krasovsky 6378 245 6356 863 298.3 Russia

1924 International 6378 388 6356 912 297 Europe, China,

South America

1880 Clarke 1880 6378 248 6356 515 293.46 Africa, Middle East

1866 Clarke 1860 6878 206 6356 584 294.89 USA, Canada,
Philippines

1841 Bessel 6877 397 6356 079 299.15 Japan, Korea,

Indonesia

1830 Everest 6377 304 6356 103 300.80 India, Myanmar,

Malaysia,

Name Date Semi-major Semi-minor Ellipticity (f) Use

Axis Axis (a) Axis (b)
(a)

Delambre 1810 6,376,428 6,355,598 1/311.5 Belgium*

Plessis 1817 6,376,523 6,566,863 1/308.6 France*

Everest 1830 6,377,276.345 6,356,075.413 1/300.80 India, Burma, Ceylon,

Malaysia , Nepal
Nagarkot

Bessell 1841 6,377,397 6,356,079 1/299.15 Most part of Central

Europe, Chile and
Indonesia

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Datum
A mathematical model must be related to real-world
features.

• A smooth mathematical surface that fits closely to the

mean sea level surface throughout the area of
interest. The surface to which the ground control
measurements are referred.

• Provides a frame of reference for measuring

locations on the surface of the earth.

How do I get a Datum?

• To determine latitude and longitude, surveyors level
their measurements down to a surface called a geoid.
The geoid is the shape that the earth would have if all its
topography were removed.
• Or more accurately, the shape the earth would have if
every point on the earth's surface had the value of mean
sea level.

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Traditional Horizontal Datums

The Traditional Approach
Many nations established their own regional datum
– Used various national standards and procedures
– Different time frames
– Calculated ellipsoids that fit well locally
Established initial point location and orientation
with astronomic observations
Result:
Inconsistent Datums

Traditional Horizontal Datums

Limitations to the Traditional Approach

(Clarke Ellipsoid ) (International Ellipsoid)

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Horizontal Datums
Regional vs. Global Approach
Global replaces regional datums with a common, accurate standard
One system for maps of the entire planet

Coordinate Systems
• Geospatial data should be geographically referenced
(called georeferenced or geocoded) in a common
coordinate system.

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Plane coordinate system

• Rectangle coordinate system
• Polar coordinate system
• Plane Orthogonal Coordinate

• Plane Orthogonal Coordinates

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3d Orthogonal Coordinates
Three dimensional (3d) orthogonal coordinates are also used to locate
points with the plane coordinates (x, y) and height or depth (z) as shown
in Figure 1.3 (a) and (b).
In case of locating points on the Earth on the assumption of a sphere,
latitude (), the angle measured between the equatorial plane and the
point along the meridian and longitude (), the angle measured on the
equatorial plane between the meridian of the point and the Greenwich
meridian (or called the central meridian)) are used as shown in Figure 1.3
(c). Longitude has values range from 0o (Greenwich, U.K.) to + 180 o
(eastly) and from 0 o to – 180 o (westly).

N
Longitude Greenwich, UK

Equator

Prime Meridian

Latitude

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Geoid Simplified Representation: Ellipsoid

Planar map with Projection on

coordinate system developable surface

The surface of the Earth tears when you

peel and flatten it. Peel a globe and you
will get globe gores.
Most map projections stretch and distort
the earth to fill in the tears. The Mercator
projection preserves angles, and
so shapes in limited areas, but it greatly
distorts sizes. Look at the size of Greenland
on the globe compared to the Mercator.

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Map Projection
• Maps are flat, but the surfaces they represent are
curved. Transforming, three-dimensional space onto
a two dimensional map is called "projection". This
process inevitably distorts at least one of the
following properties:
• Shape,
• Area,
• Distance,
• Direction, and often more.

Selection of Map Projection

• There is no ideal map projection, but representation for a
given purpose can be achieved. The selection of projection is
made on the basis of the following:

The location and the extension of the feature of the globe.

• The shape of the boundary to be projected.
• The deformations or distortions of a map to be minimized.
• The mathematical model to be applied to preserve some
identity of graphical features.

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Classification based on preserved qualities

• While transferring the globe on a plane
surface some facts should be kept in view:
– Preservation of area,
– Preservation of shape,
– Preservation of bearing i.e. direction and distance.

According to the quality they preserve,

projections may be classified into three groups

• Equal area (Homolographic projection),

• Correct shape (Orthomorphic or Conformal
projection),
• True bearing (Azimuthal projection).

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Classification based on developable

surface area
• There are some surfaces over which the
sphere may be projected. After projection
such surfaces may be cut open onto flat
surface. These developable surfaces include
– Cylinder and
– Cone.

Geometry of a developable surface

cylindrical transforms the spherical
surface to a tangent or secant cylinder

conic uses the tangent

or secant cone

azimuthal use a tangent or

secant plane (flat sheet)

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Map Projection (summary)

• A map projection is a process of transforming
location on the curved surface of the Earth
with the geodetic coordinate (,) to plane
map coordinates (x,y).
• More than 400 different map projections have
been proposed. The map projections are
classified by the following parameters
– projection plane: perspective, conical, cylindrical
– aspect : normal, transverse, oblique
– property : conformality, equivalence, equidistance

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Projection System used in Nepal

TWO important used coordinate systems are:
• geographic coordinates (latitude, longitude),
(degree, minute, second: DMS),
• UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) co-
ordinates (X,Y) metros), and
• In Nepal
• MUTM (Modified Transverse Mercator)

Universal Transverse Mercator

The UTM graticule coverage
Each belt is 6O in longitude wide

84o N

Equator

80o S
180o 0o 180o
1 30 60

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UTM Coordinate System

UTM
• Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) System The UTM system is
used for mapping and GIS in many countries. The basic details of
this system include:
• World is divided into 60 N-S 'zones' (Nepal in 44 and 45 zones)
• Each zone is 6 degrees longitude wide
• Zone varies in width: 668 km at equator, 115 km at 80N
• Distortion = 0 at Central Meridian (zone center)
• Misaligned with earth graticule away from CM
• Coordinates given by 'easting' (first) and 'northing'
• Easting (6 digits): relative to CM = 500,000 (metres)
• Northing (7 digits): relative to Equator = 0 (metres)
• Equator to Pole = 10,000,000 metres
• Adjacent map sheets and digital tiles match within a zone
• Adjacent sheets and tiles DON'T match between zones
• Used for scales > = 1 : 250,000; not used for smaller scales

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Parameters for Map Presentation

1. Central Meridian
The single line of longitude that is truly
vertical on the map. It is usually in the middle of
the map. Map in the Conic projection normally
gives the coordinates for the central meridian.

2. Scale Factor
• Scale must vary over a projection or otherwise it would be a
globe. The stated scale is only an average or approximation for
part of the map, hence we get the concept of a 'scale factor'
(SF) where:
• SF (at a point) = scale at that point divided by the 'principal
scale' *
e.g. if principal scale = 1:1 million and actual scale at a point =
1:2 million,
then SF at that point = 1/2million divided by
1/1million = 1/2
• *Principal scale comes from the representative fraction (RF) of
a reference globe. The reference globe is created by mapping
the earth surface onto a hypothetical globe reduced to a scale
chosen for the flat map. Thus, the SF will always be 1 on a
globe.

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3. False Easting
• Many projections have an original point,
which might be located at the intersection of
the CM and SP or the CM and the latitude of
the projection’s origin.
• The False Easting is the X-coordinate value
assigned relative to this origin. For instance, if
the origin of projection (in latitude/longitude)
is in the center of the map, all areas west of
the origin would be negative when False
Easting of zero is assigned. To make the
coordinate positive for the entire map, set the
False Easting to a positive number.

4. False Northing
The false Northing is similar to false Easting
except that it is an arbitrary y-shift. For
instance, if the origin of projection (in
latitude/longitude) is in the center of the map, all
areas south of the origin would be negative
unless a positive False Northing was assigned.

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5. Latitude of Projection’s Origin

• For conic projection where two standard parallels
are assigned. The latitude of the projection’s
origin identifies where to put the false Easting
and Northing.

• Explain UTM Coordinate System

• Explain Nepal Coordinate system

• +proj=tmerc +lat_0=0 +lon_0=84 +k=0.9999

+x_0=500000 +y_0=0 +a=6377276.345
+b=6356075.41314024
+towgs84=296.2,731.5,273.0,0,0,0,0 +units=m
+no_defs

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Detail of .prj file

• PROJCS["Nepal_MUTM84",GEOGCS["GCS_Ne
pal_Nagarkot",DATUM["D_Nepal_Nagarkot",S
PHEROID["Everest_Adjustment_1937",637727
6.345,300.8017]],PRIMEM["Greenwich",0.0],U
NIT["Degree",0.0174532925199433]],PROJECT
ION["Transverse_Mercator"],PARAMETER["Fal
se_Easting",500000.0],PARAMETER["False_No
rthing",0.0],PARAMETER["Central_Meridian",8
4.0],PARAMETER["Scale_Factor",0.9999],PARA
METER["Latitude_Of_Origin",0.0],UNIT["Mete
r",1.0]]

Detail of .qpj file

• PROJCS["MUTM84",GEOGCS["unnamed
ellipse",DATUM["unknown",SPHEROID["unna
med",6377276.345,300.8017000000115],TOW
GS84[296.2,731.5,273,0,0,0,0]],PRIMEM["Gre
enwich",0],UNIT["degree",0.01745329251994
33]],PROJECTION["Transverse_Mercator"],PAR
AMETER["latitude_of_origin",0],PARAMETER["
central_meridian",84],PARAMETER["scale_fact
or",0.9999],PARAMETER["false_easting",5000
00],PARAMETER["false_northing",0],UNIT["M
eter",1]]

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Map Precision and Accuracy

• Precision: How exactly a location is specified (relates
to the exactness of the method used).
• Accuracy: How close recorded location is to true
value (relates to the exactness of the result) .

Traditionally, suitable precision was approximately '0.5mm'

on the map (the smallest distance that can be measured,
or two features to be seen as separate).

PRECISION ACCURACY
SCALE
(RESOLUTION) (DETECTION)
1:1,000,000 500 metres 1000 metres
Fig 2-5
1:250,000 125 m 250 m
1:100,000 50 m 100 m
1:50,000 25 m 50 m
1:20,000 10 m 20 m
1:5,000 2.5 m 5m
1:1,000 0.5 m 1m

As you can see from this table, precision is usually finer than
accuracy (i.e. it's easier to be precise than
accurate). Technically in GIS databases and mapping, it is
possible to be more precise and accurate than on hardcopy
maps, but this depends on the quality of the data.

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Map Scale

• Relative size of scales is dependent on the

representative fraction
• 1:25,000 is considered a large-scale map
• 1:125,000 is usually considered a small scale map, at
least in comparison to 1:25,000
– You may also use the terms fine and coarse-scale
resolution to avoid confusion

ERRORS IN GIS

• Types of Errors:
– Positional accuracy (in spatial data)
• about the width of a line = 0.5mm. Hence at a scale
of 1:50,000, error can be no more than 25 metres on
the ground; at 1:250,000 error must be <125
metres.Positional accuracy can be measured in Root
Mean Square Error or 'RMS' = a measure of the
average distance between the true and estimated
location, or the error (e) in x and y.
– Attribute accuracy

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Sources / Causes of Error

– Source errors (before GIS)
• i. Instrument inaccuracies:
– satellite/ air photo/ GPS/ surveying (spatial).
– same for (attribute) measuring instruments.
• ii. Human processing:
– mis- interpretation (e.g. photos), spatial and attribute.
– effects of scale change and generalization.
– effects of classification (nominal / ordinal / interval).
• iii. Actual changes:
– Gradual 'natural' changes: river courses, glacier recession
– Catastrophic change: fires, floods, landslides
– Seasonal and daily changes: lake/sea/ river levels:
– Man-made: urban development, new roads
– Attribute change: forest growth (height etc.), discontinued
trail / roads, road surfacing

GIS processing errors

• i. Input:
– Digitizing: human error, the width of a line, spikes, knots,
also entering attribute data.
– Dangling nodes (connected to only one arc): permissible
in arc themes (river headwaters, cul-de-sacs
– Pseudo-nodes (connected to one or two arcs) -
permissible in island arcs, and where attributes change,
e.g. road becomes paved from dirt or vice versa.
– Projection input / change e.g. NAD27 v NAD83, ALBERS
and UTM
• ii. Data manipulation:
– Interpolation of point data into lines and surfaces e.g. TIN
and contours

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+ o
Detail Calculation of Positional Accuracy
O +
A
B

+o
C O + D

+ Map Position
O Real Position

Point True-X True-Y Map-X Map-Y Distance Erro

A 50 50 49 51 1.41
B 150 35 148 35 2.0
C 170 130 170 131 1.0
D 100 170 101 169 1.41

Average Distance Error 1.46

Standard Deviation of Distance Error = 0.36
RMS... 1.4980

Distance Error of
Individual Pair =

= 1.41, 2.0, 1.0, 1.41

Average Distance Errors (Xavg) = (1.41 + 2.0 + 1.0 + 1.41)/4 = 1.46

Standard Deviation of Distance Error = (SUM (X-Xavg)2/n)

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d davg d-davg (d-davg)2

1.41 1.46 -0.05 0.0025 e1 = 1.41 e12 = 1.9881

2.00 1.46 0.54 0.2916 e2 = 2.00 e22 = 4.0000
1.00 1.46 -0.46 0.2116 e3 = 1.00 e32 = 1.0000
1.41 1.46 -0.05 0.0025 e4 = 1.41 e42 = 1.9881

S.D. of distance error =

sd= 0.36

Calculation of Accuracy level = Z-value * SD + Mean

Confidence Level Z-Value Accuracy

80% 0.84 1.76m

90% 1.28 1.92m
95% 1.645 2.05 m

Accuracy at 80% confidence level = 0.84 *0.36 + 1.46 = 1.762

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How to determine Allowable RMS?

• Accuracy standard based on scale

• United States National Map Accuracy Standards
– Maps shall have no more than 10% of test points in error by more than
1/30 inch for 1:20000 scale maps or smaller, and no more than 1/50
inch for maps greater than 1:20,000
– Conversion of accuracy standards into statistical analyses of the
allowable RMS requires that 95% of the accidental errors shall not be
larger than 1.64 times the RMS (that is, 1.64 standard deviations,
assuming a normal distribution in error.) Therefore:
– Allowable RMS = (Acceptable error on the ground /Z score
probability of occurrence)
– = (Acceptable error on the ground /1.64 )
• Accuracy Standard based on expected map products
• If there is no well-defined application, establishing on
allowable error might be more difficult.

• Example 1:
– 1:25000 scale USGS, UTM Coordinate in maters
– Acceptable error on the ground = Error on the map scale conversion units
conversion
– = 1/30 inch *25000 *0.0254
– = 21.16 meters
– Allowable RMS = (Acceptable error on the ground/Z score probability of
occurrence)
– = 21.166/1.64 = 12.90 meters
• Example 2:
– A assumption is that a typical error of cartographer = 0.25mm or 0.01 inch
1:2500 Scale is needed to be produced.
– Acceptable error on the ground = Error on the map scale conversion
units conversion
– = 0.25mmx2500x0.001 meters
– = 0.625 meters
– Allowable RMS = (Acceptable error on the ground /Z score probability of
occurrence)
– = 0.625/1 = 0.625 meters
• Accuracy Standard based on probability objective

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– Eamaple 2 by USMA Method

– By usgs method 1/50inch for 1:2500 scale map
– 1:2500 Scale is needed to be produced.
– Acceptable error on the ground = Error on the map
scale conversion units conversion
– = 01/50 * 25.4 mmx2500x0.001 meters
– = 1.27 meters
– Allowable RMS = (Acceptable error on the ground
/Z score probability of occurrence)
– = 1.27/1.64 = 0.77 meters

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