General Biology Reviewer

ATP – ADP Cycle

- Source of energy.
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) - It is the energy currency of the cell.
- It is used by a cell for survival.
Glycogen and Starch - Where are the excess Adenosine Triphosphate stored?
 Adenine
 Phosphate - 3 Main Components of ATP:
 Sugar
Nucleotide - ATP is considered a __, but never a nucleic acid.
Adenine is the only nitrogenous base present
- Why are ATP not considered a nucleic acid?
in an ATP

- ATP – ADP Cycle

- It is the process involving the addition and subtraction of phosphate in Adenosine

Metabolic Process
Triphosphate (ATP) and Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP).
ATPase (ATP Splitter) & ATP Synthase - These are the enzymes involved in the ATP – ADP Cycle.
ATPase (ATP Splitter) - It is the enzyme responsible when energy is being released from ATP to ADP.
ATP Synthase - It is the enzyme responsible when energy is being stored from ADP to ATP.
Photosynthesis
- It is an anabolic process essential in sustaining life on earth.
- Renounced as food-making.
Photosynthesis
- Process by which autotrophs convert light energy into chemical energy that can be later
released to fuel the organisms’ activities.
Autotrophs - Organisms that is capable of producing their own food.
Reactants (input) - Chemicals and substances that are used in producing outputs.
Products (output) - Chemicals and substances produced from inputs.
6CO2 + H2O + Light Energy - Reactants (input) of photosynthesis:
6O2 + C6H12O6 - Products (output) of photosynthesis:
Light Energy
6CO2 + H2O + →
Chlorophyll - Formula for Photosynthesis
6O2 + C6H12O6
- Leaves’ pigment that causes them to appear red, yellow, orange, green, or any of the other
Chlorophyll colors.
- It is also the one responsible in absorbing light energy.
Chloroplast - It is the organelle that contains chlorophyll and where photosynthesis takes place.
- These are multiple Granum’s found inside a chloroplast
Grana
- The stacks of thylakoids embedded in the Stroma of a chloroplast
Stroma - It refers to the colorless fluid surrounding the grana within the chloroplast.
- It is a membrane-bound compartment inside chloroplast and cyanobacteria.
Thylakoid
- These are disc-plates located inside a chloroplast.
Ribulose Biphosphate (RuBP) - It is the molecule present in the chloroplast that is being transformed to glucose.
Ribulose Biphosphate Carboxylase Oxygenase - Rubisco
Phosphoglyceric - PGA
Glyceraldehyde 3 Phosphate - G3P or PGAL
 Light Dependent Reaction
- Stages of Photosynthesis
 Light Independent Reaction
 Calvin-Benson Cycle - (3) Light Independent Reaction can also be referred to as:
 Dark Reaction
 Carbon Reaction
- Why are light independent reaction also named Calvin-Benson cycle?
Melvin Calvin and Andrew Benson
- They were the ones to explain thoroughly and correctly the reaction.
Dark Reaction - Light independent reaction was also renounced as __ because of the absence of light.
 - Light independent reaction was also renounced as __ because of the presence of carbon
Carbon reaction
dioxide.
- Process that uses light energy or photons to initiate electron transfer. Thereby reducing
Light Dependent Reaction
NADP+ and splitting H2O to give off oxygen as a byproduct.
Photons - These are particles of light energy
 Water
 Light energy
 Enzymes - (4) These are the starting materials under light dependent reaction:
(ATP Synthase, ADP, NADP)
 Chlorophyll
 Oxygen
 NADPH - (3) These are the end-products under light dependent reaction:
 ATP
NADPH and ATP - These are energy or electron carriers or givers.
When light energy is captured by the
chlorophyll, molecules in the thylakoid
becomes excited and are transofrmed to
another molecule. - What explains the phenomena where ADP and NADP changes during light dependent
reaction?
This explains the phenomena when ADP is
changed to ATP and NADP changed to
NADPH
Light Independent Reaction - Process that transforms Carbon Dioxide to PGAL to Glucose.
 Carbon Fixation
 Reduction - (3) Major stages of light independent reaction:
 Regeneration of RuBP
Stroma - Light Independent Reaction takes place in the __.
Thylakoid - Light Dependent Reaction takes place in the __.
- It is the process by which inorganic carbon is added to an organic molecule.
Carbon Fixation - It occurs during the light independent reaction of photosynthesis and is the first step in the
Calvin cycle.
3CO2 and 3 5-Carbon RuBP - These are the starting materials used in Carbon Fixation
1. The 3 5-Carbon RuBP will be added to the
3CO2 to form a 6-Carbon RuBP
2. During the first step, oxygen is left.
- (4) Steps under Carbon Fixation:
3. After fixation, the 6-Carbon RuBP will be
added to a Rubisco to form PGA.
4. With this, 6 PGAs are formed.
- It is an enzyme splitter that will split the 6-Carbon RuBP into 6 PGAs with three carbons
Rubisco
each.
- It is the process of gaining an electron by an atom or molecule.
Reduction
- It uses molecules to convert the PGA into G3P or PGAL.
6 ATP and 6 NADPH - These are used to convert PGAs to G3Ps.
 The 5PGA will be energized by
6ATPs.
 The 6NADPH is reponsible in
reduction or to transofrm PGA to - (3) Steps under Reduction:
G3P (PGAL)
 One PGA with 3 carbons will be left
out
5G3P - How many G3Ps are formed during reduction?
Oxygen - It is the substance oxidized during photosynthesis, which means it loses electrons.
Carbon Dioxide - It is the substance reduced during photosynthesis, which means it gains electrons.
- It is the process of using the left 3-carbon PGA during reduction and repeating the process
Regeneration
to form the last G3P that will result to glucose.
5G3P - It is needed to regenerate 3 RuBP and 3 ATP
3RuBP and the left 3CO2 - This will form the last G3P
1G3P + 1G3P - This is equivalent to glucose.
 C6H12O6 - Chemical formula for glucose.
 3CO2
 3 5-Carbon RuBP - (3) Starting material for light Independent Reaction (carbon fixation)
 RUBISCO
 6-Carbon RuBP
 Oxygen - (3) Byproduct for Light Independent Reaction (carbon fixation)
 6 PGA
 6 ATP
 6 NADPH - (3) Starting material for Light Independent Reaction (Reduction)
 6 3-Carbon PGA
6 3-Carbon G3P - Byproduct for Light Independent Reaction (Reduction)
 5 G3P
- (2) Starting material for Light Independent Reaction (Regeneration)
 3 ATP
3 RuBP - Byproduct for Light Independent Reaction (Regeneration)
Chromatography - It is a separating technique used to separate compounds based on their solubility.
Cellular Respiration
- It is a catabolic process that converts the energy in the chemical bonds of nutrients to
Cellular Respiration
chemical energy stored in Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP).
C6H12O6 + 6O2 →
- Formula for cellular respiration:
6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
ATP - Specific energy involved in cellular respiration.
- Powerhouse of the cell that produces the most amount of energy.
Mitochondrion
- This is where cellular respiration occurs.
 Cristae
 Matrix - (3) Some of the most important parts of a mitochondrion:
 Inner membrane
Cristae - These are the folding inside a mitochondrion.
- The fluid portion of the mitochondrion.
Matrix
- This is where Kreb’s cycle or citric acid cycle occurs.
- The inner covering of the mitochondrion.
Inner membrane
- This is where Electron transport chain occurs.
 Glycolysis
 Fermentation of Acetyl Coenzyme A
- (4) Stages of Cellular Respiration:
 Kreb’s Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle
 Electron Transport Chain
Cytoplasm - This is where glycolysis occurs.
- It is the process by which glucose is turned into pyruvate.
Glycolysis
- It is the process of splitting or breaking of sugars.

 Pyruvate
 2 ATP - (3) Byproduct of Glycolysis:
 2 NADH
Glucose - Starting material of Glycolysis:
- This is not a major process but it is needed in the cellular respiration to be able to turn
Fermentation of Acetyl Coenzyme A
pyruvate into an Acetyl Coenzyme A.
Coenzyme A - This is added to a pyruvate for it to be an Acetyl Coenzyme A.
Cytoplasm - This is where fermentation of Acetyl Coenzyme A takes place.
 Pyruvate
- (2) Starting material of fermentation of acetyl coenzyme A:
 Coenzyme A
 Acetyl coenzyme A
 Carbon dioxide - (3) Byproducts of fermentation of acetyl coenzyme A:
 2 NADH
Matrix - This is where Kreb’s cycle takes place.
Kreb’s cycle or Citric Acid Cycle - It is the process of turning pyruvate to a citric acid.
Acetyl Coenzyme A → Citrate →
- What happens to Acetyl Coenzyme A during Kreb’s cycle?
Oxaloacetate
 Acetyl Coenzyme A - Starting material in the Kreb’s Cycle:
 Oxaloacetate
 2 ATP
 Carbon Dioxide - (5) Byproduct of Kreb’s Cycle:
 6 NADH (3 NADH, 3 NADH)
 2 FADH2 (1 FADH2, 1 FADH2)
Happens twice becaause
- How many times does Kreb’s Cycle occur?
1 glucose = 2 Acetyl Coenzyme A
Inner membrane - This is where electron transport chain occurs.
ATP, NADH, and FADH2 - (3) They are known to be electron givers or carriers.
Electron transport chain - It is the process of using NADH and FADH2 to be able to come up with ATP.
38 ATP - Total number of ATP produced in a glucose molecule.
34 ATP
2 NADH – glycolysis = 6 ATP
2 NADH – fermentation = 6 ATP - Initial number of ATP produced from NADHs and FADH2 of each process.
6 NADH – Kreb’s cycle = 18 ATP
2 FADH2 – Kreb’s cycle = 4 ATP
3 ATP - 1 NADH is equivalent to __ ATP.
2 ATP - 1 FADH2 is equivalent to __ ATP.
2 Acetyl Coenzyme A - 1 Glucose is equivalent to __ Acetyl Coenzyme A.
2ATP from glycolysis - After adding the 34 ATP from NADH and FADH2, where did the other 4 ATP come from,
2ATP from fermentation of acetyl CoA to be able to form a total of 38 ATP in a glucose molecule.
 9 NADH
- (2) Starting material of electron transport chain:
 2 FADH2
 38 ATP
- (2) Byproduct of electron transport chain:
 6H2O
- It is the process of forming any substance.
Anabolic
(glucose is formed in photosynthesis)
- It is the process of breaking down any substance.
Catabolic
(glucose is broken down in cellular respiration)