Map Projection: SUG/GLS456 Geodesy

LECTURE
MAP PROJECTION
SUG/GLS456
GEODESY
PPSUG, FSPU, ASSOC. PROF. Sr. DR. AZMAN BIN MOHD. SULDI (MRICS, MRISM)
UiTM, SHAH ALAM
ASSOC. PROF. Sr. DR. AZMAN BIN MOHD. SULDI PPSUG, FSPU, UiTM, SHAH ALAM SUG456 GEODESY : MAP PROJECTION
MAP PROJECTION
Introduction
Map projection can be defined as a representation of the curved surface of the Earth onto
a plane surface i.e. the flattening of the Earth's surface.
The earth surface can be modelled by a geometrical figure of an ellipsoid or a sphere.

Hence lines and points measured on the topographical surface were reduced to the
reference ellipsoid surface in order to carry out geodetic computations for positioning of
those points: However, it is more convenient or practical to use a plane surface for the
mapping of points rather than a curved surface like the ellipsoid (globe).
Thus, it is necessary to transform lines and points on the ellipsoidal surface onto a plane
surface.
A problem in map projection is that, it is to fit the curved surface to a plane

without the introduction of distortion to the curved surface.
• Map projection is a process of transferring points on the earth surface

(spherical or ellipsoid models) on the plane surface.
• Since the earth is spherical in nature, there is a problem in locating places
on its surface. The only way we can only represent where countries and states
are in relation to each other is on a globe, but globes are not as convenience
to use as flat maps.
• A globe is a scale model of the earth where the general shape of surface
features are shown, and their relative area, and direction with respect to one
another are maintained. But globes of the size usually are too small to show
details such as highways, railroads, or small cities and towns.
• A map is a flat representation of the earth’s surface that is much more
convenient for use and can show a much smaller area with quite a bit of
detail. It is very difficult however, to flatten a curved surface and and keep all
the properties of the original intact.
• To convert the curved surface to a flat sheet earth, scientists must project it
onto a plane surface, usually a cylinder or cone, which can be cut and spread
out flat without stretching or tearing.
• No projection can be completely accurate. The four main properties of

maps – area, shape, distance, and direction – are distorted in different ways
and different amounts by the various projection techniques. There may be a
square shape on the globe, but when it is projected onto a plane surfaceit
becomes a rectangle with the same surface area as the original square.
• The correct shape of landforms and land masses can usually be maintained
in small areas only. Distances are nearly always distorted, as are directions.
• Projections are available that can accurately portray area, shape, distance,
or direction (one feature at a time).
CLASSIFICATIONS
The map projections can be classified as follows:
Nature PLANE CONE CYLINDER

Position NORMAL TRANSVERSE OBLIQUE
Co-incidence TANGENT SECANT POLY-
SUPERFICIAL
Characteristic EQUIDISTANT EQUIVALENCE CONFORMAL
Projection Classification Characteristics/Qualities

1. Conformal
• Aim to maintain shape
• Angles are retain correctly
• Latitude and Longitude always intersect at 90 degrees
2. Equivalent
• Aim to maintain area
• A unit area on a map represents the correct scale reduced unit area on the
ground
• Retaining equivalent invariably distort shape; hence latitude and
longitude will not always meet at 90 degrees.
3. Equidistant
• Aim to maintain distance
• The length of a straight line between two points on a map represents the
correct great circle distance between those two points.
• On a small scale equidistant map, correct distance can only be truefrom
one or at most two points (those points where all great circles intersect) to
all other points.
4. Azimuthally
• Aim to preserve direction
• Azimuthally map must satisfy two conditions:-
i) A line between two points must represent the great circle route
ii) A line between two points must maintain the true azimuth
• On a small scale azimuthally map, correct direction can only be true from
one or at most points (those points where all great circles routes intersect)
Projection Classification for Malaysia
A. Cadastral Mapping
Projection type : Cassini
Classification : Cylindrical→Transverse→Tangent→Equidistant projection
B. Topographic Mapping
Projection type : Malayan Rectified Skew Orthomorphic (MRSO)
Classification : Cylindrical→Oblique→Secant→Conformal projection
Definition of the Classifications
Case:
Tangency or Case refers to the location or locations that a projection surface
touches or cuts through the globe.
There are two types of tangency:
1. Tangent : The projection surface touches the globe at one point or along one line
2. Secant : The projection surface cuts through the globe to touch the surface at two lines
Transverse:
The transverse aspect places the projection surface 90 degrees from the normal
position
Oblique:
The oblique aspect of a projection surface is placed above or on any position
between , but not including the equator and the poles. It may be centered on a
parallel or on a meridian
Equal Area (Equivalent):
Equal area or equivalent maps maintained true relationships of areas. That is, at a
given scale, for every part, as well as the whole, map area is proportional to
the corresponding area on the earth. Deformation occurs in elliptical fashion
away from tangency thus shapes are distorted
Equidistant:
In the equidistant projections scale is preserved (not distorted) in the direction
perpendicular to the line of zero distortion or radially outwards from a point of
zero distortion. The name arises from the fact that in the normal aspect of
Cylindrical, Conic and Azimuthal projections the principal scale is preserved
along the meridians and therefore all parallels on the map are equidistantly
spaced.
Conformal:
On a conformal projection scale is the same in every direction from any point on
the map, thus deformation of scale increases regularly in all directions.
Parallels and meridians intersects at right angles and the shape of very small
areas (“orthomorphic”), and angles with very short sides are preserved. As
there is no angular deformation, and true angles are maintained, angular
measurements can be made from conformal projections.
CONIC Map Projection
The simplest conic projection is tangent to the spheroid

along a line of latitude known as the standard
parallel for that projection.
Meridian are the projected onto the conical surface.
Parallel lines of latitude appear as rings as the are
projected onto the cone. The cone is then cut along
any meridian to produce th final conic projection.
The effect of this is that meridians, which converge on
earth, appear as straight lines, while lines of
latitude, which are parallel on earth, appear as
concentric arcs. Other conic projections include
secant and oblique.
CYLINDRICAL Map Projection
As with conic projection, cylindrical projection may

have one line of tangency or two lines of secancy
around the spheroid.
The most common cylindrical is the Mercator which
usually uses the equator as its line of tangency.
Meridians are geometrically projected onto a cylinder,
while lines of latitude are mathematically projected
onto the same.
The cylinder is cut along any meridian to produce a
final projection. The effect is that meridians are
equally distanced, while the spacing between lines
of latitude increases as you approach the poles.
PLANAR Map Projection
Projects the spheroid onto a flat surface which is

usually tangent to the spheroid (touches the
spheroid at one point), but may be secant
These projections are also referred to as azimuthal or
zenithal. The point of tangency specifies the aspect
of the projection. Functionally, the aspect serves as
the focus of the projection. Common aspects of
planar projections are polar, equatorial and oblique.
CASSINI SOLDNER Map Projection
Description:
This transverse cylindrical projection, maintains scale along the central meridian and all
lines parallel to it, and is neither equal area nor conformal.
It is most suited for large scale mapping of areas with predominantly north-south in extend.
Method of Projection:
A transverse cylinder is projected onto the globe conceptually, and is tangent along the
central meridian. Cassini is analogous to the Equirectangular projection in the same way
that the Transverse Mercator is to the Mercator projection.
May also be referred to as the Cassini Soldner, since ArcView actually uses the formulae
based on the more accurate ellipsoidal version developed in the 19th century.
Limitations:
Should be used primarily for large scale mapping of areas near the central meridian.
Transverse Mercator often preferred because of difficulty measuring scale and direction on
Cassini. Since the scale is constant along any straight line on the map that is parallel to
the central meridian, the projection is more suitable for regions that are north-south in
extend that for regions extending in other directions.
The projection is neither equal-area nor conformal, but is a compromise of both features.
Uses and Applications:
Formerly used by the Ordnance Survey in Great Britain. Still used in Cyprus, Denmark,
Germany, Malaysia (for Cadastral maps), and former Czechoslovakia.
TRANSVERSE MERCATOR Map Projection
Description:
Similar to Mercator but the cylinder is longitudinal along a meridian not the equator.
The result is a conformal projection that does not maintain true directions.
The central meridian is centered on the region to be highlighted. This centering on a
specific region minimizes distortion of all properties in that region.
As meridian runs north and south, this projection is best suited for land masses that also
stretch north to south.
Method of projection:
Central meridian centered along a particular region
Limitations:
Global projection becomes infinite 90 degrees from the central meridian
Use should be limited to 15 or 20 degrees on both sides of the central meridian.

State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS), used for predominantly north-south state zones
North America (UGSGS, central meridian scale factor =0.926)
Topographic maps of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, after 1920
UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR (UTM)
Provides coordinates on a world wide flat grid for easy computation.
Description:
The globe is divided into 60 zones, each spanning 6 degrees of longitude.
Each zone has its own central meridian.
Specialized application of the Transverse Mercator with limits of each zone are 84oN, 80oS
Method of projection
Each UTM zone has own central meridian which span 3 degrees West and East from
central meridian
The cylindrical methodology is the same as Transverse Mercator projection. Note that the
position of the cylinder rotates systematically around the globe. X and Y coordinates
recorded in meters
The origin for each zone is the Equator and its central meridian. To eliminate negative
coordinates, the projection alters the coordinates values at the origin. The value given
to the central meridian is the false easting and the value assigned to the equator is the
false northing.
For locations in the Northern Hemisphere, false easting is 500 000m, false northing is 0
In the Southern Hemisphere, false easting is 500 000m and false northing 10 000 000m
UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR (UTM)
Limitations:
Designed for a scale error not exceeding 0.1 % within each zone.
This projection spans the globe from 84oN to 80oS. Error and distortion increase for
regions that span more than one UTM zone.

Medium scale maps of regions throughout the world.
RECTIFIED SKEW ORTHOMORPHIC MAP PROJECTION (RSO)
Description:
Used for the national coordinate systems of Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei.
Similar to Oblique Mercator
Method of projection:
Oblique cylindrical projection, with a line of constant scale skewed at an angle to the
meridian
Limitations:
Use should be limited to areas for which the projection was developed
The national coordinate systems of Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei.
For Malaysia, known as MRSO
RECTIFIED SKEW ORTHOMORPHIC MAP PROJECTION (RSO)
Used for the national coordinate systems of Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei.
Similar to Oblique Mercator
Oblique cylindrical projection, with a line of constant scale skewed at an angle to the
meridian, secant and conformal (sama bentuk)
Maintain shape with projection scale factor = 0.99984 same in any direction.
Origin coordinates of projection is 4o North, 102o 15’ East
Maintain shape (conformal) where its scale factor at a point are the same to any direction.
Scale factor at meridian, h and scale factor at parallels, k are equal (h = k)
A circle on a globe is also a circle on the map.

Map Projection: SUG/GLS456 Geodesy

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LECTURE

The earth surface can be modelled by a geometrical figure of an ellipsoid or a sphere.

A problem in map projection is that, it is to fit the curved surface to a plane

• Map projection is a process of transferring points on the earth surface

• No projection can be completely accurate. The four main properties of

Nature PLANE CONE CYLINDER

Projection Classification Characteristics/Qualities

Definition of the Classifications

CONIC Map Projection

The simplest conic projection is tangent to the spheroid

CYLINDRICAL Map Projection

As with conic projection, cylindrical projection may

PLANAR Map Projection

Projects the spheroid onto a flat surface which is

CASSINI SOLDNER Map Projection

TRANSVERSE MERCATOR Map Projection

Uses and Applications:

UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR (UTM)

Provides coordinates on a world wide flat grid for easy computation.

UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR (UTM)

Uses and Applications:

RECTIFIED SKEW ORTHOMORPHIC MAP PROJECTION (RSO)

RECTIFIED SKEW ORTHOMORPHIC MAP PROJECTION (RSO)

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