SUG/GLS456 Geodesy: Ppsug, Fspu, Uitm, Shah Alam Assoc. Prof. Sr. Dr. Azman Bin Mohd. Suldi (Mrics, Mrism)

LECTURE 2
SUG/GLS456
GEODESY
PPSUG, FSPU, ASSOC. PROF. Sr. DR. AZMAN BIN MOHD. SULDI (MRICS, MRISM)
UiTM, SHAH ALAM
ASSOC. PROF. Sr. DR. AZMAN BIN MOHD. SULDI PPSUG, FSPU, UiTM, SHAH ALAM SUG456 GEODESY : GEODETIC COORDINATES
GEODETIC COORDINATES
Z  Consider a rotational
P ellipsoid centre at O.
Q’
 OZ is the rotational axis.
l
 The OX axis lies in the
Q equatorial plane and
intersects the meridian PEP1
(Prime Meridian from which
Longitudes measured).
O .
f Y  OY axis in the equatorial
l
plane, perpendicular to
OX axis such that OX, OY,
E OZ form a right handed
X coordinate system.
Fig. 2.5 P1
GEODETIC COORDINATES
Z  On a meridian such as PEP1 or
P PQP1, the longitude is
Q’ constant for any point located
l on the meridian plane.
 Geodetic Longitude (l)
Q defined as the angle between
the plane of Prime Meridian
PEP1 and a meridian eg.
PQP1 passing through a given
O . point. +ve eastward
f Y
l
 Geodetic Latitude (f) defined
as the angle between the
E normal to the ellipsoid at the
point and the equatorial
X plane.
Fig. 2.5 P1
THE MERIDIAN ELLIPSE

Z
Q’ A meridian ellipse
Q passing through point Q
P with coordinate axes Z
and x.
f 90o + f
O .
x
A normal is a line to a
point (Q’) intersects the
ellipsoid at right-angle
Fig. 2.6 P1
THE REDUCED LATITUDE

Z
Q1 The angle at the center of

a sphere tangent to the
Q ellipsoid along the
a equator, between the
a plane of the equator and
b z the radius to the point Q1
intersected along the
b sphere by a straight line
. (Q2Q1) perpendicular to
Equator O x Q2 x
the plane of the equator
an passing through a
point on the ellipsoid
whose reduced latitude is
being defined.
Fig. 2.7 P1
THE GEOCENTRIC LATITUDE

Z
The angle at the center of

the ellipse between the
Q
plane of the equator and
the line to the point on the
r ellipsoid whose geocentric
b z latitude is being defined.
y
.
Equator O x Q2 x
Fig. 2.8
P1
The Relationship between Geodetic,

Reduced andZ Geocentric Latitudes
Q’
Q1 The x and z coordinates of
point Q may be computed
knowing either f, b, y and
a Q the parameters of
a r ellipsoid (a, b, f, e)
b z There relationship are
y f useful in deriving
b expressions that relate the
. various latitudes.
Equator O x Q2 x
- Using b
- Using f
- Using y
Fig. 2.9
P1
Determine x and z using Reduced

Latitude b Z
Q’
OQ2  Q1Q2  a 2
2 2
Q1 (2.13)
The equation of this meridian

a Q ellipse maybe written as
a r
b z x2 z 2
2
 2  1 (2.14)
a b
y f
b with x  OQ2 and z  Q2Q,
. we have
Equator O x Q2 x
(OQ2 ) 2 (Q2Q) 2
2
 2
1 (2.15)
a b
Fig. 2.9
P1
Determine x and z using Reduced

Latitude b Z
Q’
Q1 Combining 2.13 and 2.15,
We have
2
2 a
(OQ2 )  (Q2Q) . 2
2
a Q b
a r  a 2  (OQ2 ) 2  (Q2Q1 ) 2 (2.16)
b z
y f We get
b
. b
Q2Q  Q2Q1 (2.17)
Equator O x Q2 x a
From figure,
Q2Q1  a sin b (2.18)
 x  OQ2  a cos b (2.19)

Fig. 2.9 z  Q2Q  b sin b (2.20)
P1
Determine x and z using Geodetic

Latitude f Z
Q’
Q1 Considering figure 2.6, the slope of
the tangent line is the tangent of the
angle with the positive axis (2.21)
Q dz cos f
a  tan(90  f )   cot f  
a r dx sin f
b z dz
Where dx is the slope of the
y f
b tangent line.
. Re-write equation 2.14 as follows
Equator O x Q2 x
b 2 x 2  a 2 z 2  a 2b 2 (2.22)
And differentiate to get
b2 xdx  a 2 zdz  0 (2.23)
Re-arranging, we get
Fig. 2.9 dz b2 x cos f
P1  2.  (2.24)
dx a z sin f

Latitude f Z
Q’ Using equation 2.17 and 2.24
Q1
b2 x sin f  a 2 z cos f (2.25)
Squaring both sides, we have
a Q
a r b 4 x 2 sin 2 f  a 4 z 2 cos 2 f (2.26)
b z Multiply equation 2.22 by  b sin f
2 2
y f
b Add the result to equation 2.26,
. multiply by -1, then solve for z.
Equator O x Q2 x
b 2 sin f
z 1
(2.27)
(a 2 cos 2 f  b 2 sin 2 f ) 2
Similarly, find x
a 2 cos f
Fig. 2.9 x 1
(2.28)
P1 (a cos f  b sin f ) 2
2 2 2 2

Latitude f Z
Q’
Q1 Using e2 from equation 2.2, the
denominators of equation 2.27 and
2.28 become
1
a Q a(1  e sin f )
2 2 2
a r
b z So, x and z can be written as
follows
y f
b a cos f
. x 1
(2.29)
Equator O x Q2 x
(1  e 2 sin 2 f ) 2
a(1  e 2 ) sin f
z 1
(2.30)
(1  e 2 sin 2 f ) 2
Fig. 2.9
P1
Determine x and z using Geocentric

Latitude y Z
From figure
Q x  r cos  (2.31)
z  r sin  (2.32)
r Where r is the geocentric radius.
b z
Clearly we have
r  x2  z 2 (2.33)
y
.
Equator O x Q2 x
Substituting equation 2.31 and

2.32 into 2.14, and solving for
r, we find
1
a(1  e )
2 2
b
Fig. 2.8 r  (2.34)
P1 (1  e cos  )
2 2
(1  e cos  )
2 2
Determine x and z using Geocentric

Latitude y Z
Q
Substituting this value of r back into
equation 2.31 and 2.32
r
1
b z
a(1  e ) cos 
2 2
x (2.35)
(1  e cos  )
2 2
y
.
Equator O x Q2 x 1
a(1  e ) sin 
2 2
z (2.36)
(1  e cos  )
2 2
Fig. 2.8
P1
Relationship between the b, f and y

Z
From figure 2.8, we write

z
Q tan   (2.37)
x
Substituting for z and x from
r
b z equations 2.19, 2.20, 2.29 and 2.30
b
tan   tan b  (1  e 2 ) tan f (2.38)
a
y
.
Equator O x Q2 x
Thus, we can have

1
tan   (1  e ) tan b  (1  e 2 ) tan f
2 2
(2.39)
Fig. 2.8
P1 tanΨ  (1  e2 ) tan f (2.40)
RADIUS (RADII) OF CURVATURE ON THE

ELLIPSOID
Z  Consider a normal to the surface
P of the ellipsoid at one point.
Q’  Take the plane that contain this
l normal and thus is perpendicular
to the tangent line.
Q  This plane will cut the surface of
the ellipsoid forming a curve
known as the normal section.
 The radii of curvature of the
O . normal section will depend on the
f Y azimuth of the line.
l
 At each point, there exist two
mutually perpendicular normal
E sections whose curvatures are
maximum and minimum.
X  These are called principal normal
sections.
Fig. 2.5 P1
 On the ellipsoid, these two

normal sections are;
 The meridional section
 A plane passing through the
given point and both poles
 The radius of curvature in the
meridian is designated as M
 The prime vertical section

 A section through the point
and perpendicular to the
meridional section at the point
Meridian normal section plane MPNO  The radius of curvature in the
Prime vertical normal section plane WPEH
prime vertical is designated
C lies on the normal and is the centre of curvature of the meridian ellipse
M (r) the radius of curvature of the meridian section as N
H is the centre of curvature of the prime vertical
N (u) the radius of curvature of the prime vertical section
Euler’s Formula – To find the radius of curvature
In order to find the radius of curvature in an arbitrary direction we may utilize Euler’s
formula
1 cos 2  sin 2 
  (2.41)
r r1 r2
Where,
 r - is the arbitrary radius of curvature
  - is the angle measured from the principal section with the largest radius of
curvature
 r1 in the principal normal direction and
 r2 - is the radius of curvature in the direction of the other principal normal direction.
 After examining the M and N values in the next pages, we shall apply equation 2.41 to
the ellipsoid case
The Radius of Curvature in the

Meridian M
 If we have a plane curve specified as z = F(x)
 The radius of curvature at the point on a curve (from calculus) is
1
  dz  2
 2
1    
  dx  
r (2.42)
d 2z
dx 2
 From equation 2.21, we have
dz
  cot f
dx
 Differentiate the above equation

d 2z 1 df 1 1
 .  . (2.43)
dx 2 sin 2 f dx sin 2 f dx
df

Meridian M
 From equation 2.29, we have
a cos f
x
1  e 
1
2
sin f2 2
 Differentiate wrt f , we obtain

dx  a(1  e 2 ) sin f
 (2.44)
df
 
1
1  e sin f 2
2 2
 Using 2.44 and 2.42, we have

1
d z  (1  e sin f )
2 2 2 2
 (2.45)
dx 2
a sin 2 f (1  e 2 )

Meridian M
a(1  e 2 )
M (2.46)
1  e 
3
2
sin 2 f 2
a2
M (2.46a)
 
3
b 1  e'2 cos 2 f 2

Meridian M- alternative derivation
ds  We have ds a differential distance
Z dz
along a meridian arc,
dx
 df is the angular separation
ds
 If M is the meridian radius of
curvature of the meridian arc, then
df
M
2
 dx  dz
ds  Mdf  dx  dz  dz 1     dz 1  tan 2 f 
2 2
(2.47)
 dz  cos f

dz
Since   cot f from 2.21, then
Z dx
dz
ds Mdf  OR
cos f
1 dz
M . (2.48)
cos f df
M Using equation 2.30 for z, we find that
dz a(1  e 2 ) cos f
X  (2.49)
df 3
(1 - e sin f ) 2
2 2

Substituting 2.49 into 2.48 yields
Z
a(1  e 2 )
M 3
Same as (2.46)
ds (1  e 2 sin 2 f ) 2
At the equator f = 0
M M f 0  a(1  e2 ) (2.50)
At the poles f = +90o

X
a(1  e 2 ) a a a2
M f 90o     (2.51)
3 1
1 f b
(1  e )2 2
(1 - e )2 2

  dz  2  3
Z OR, from calculus 1     2
  dx  
M 2
(2.52)
d z
ds dx 2
2 2
x z
And Equation of ellipse 2  2  1
a b dz
dz 2z
Finding dx from equation of ellipse 2 x  dx
M a2 b2
2
Therefore dz x b
  2 .   cot f (2.53)
dx a z
X
dz 2 cot f cot 2 f
And,   (2.54)
dx 2 x z
1  cot f 
3
2 2
Substituting 2.53 and 2.54 into 2.52. we have M (2.55)
cot f cot 2 f

x z

a cos f a(1  e 2 ) sin f
Z Recall x  : z and
1  e 
1 1
2
sin 2 f 2
(1  e 2 sin 2 f ) 2
ds Substituting x and z into 2.55, we have
1  cos f 
3
2 2
M 1 1
M cos f (1  e sin f )
2
cos f (1  e sin f )
2 2 2 2 2 2

a cos f a(1  e 2 ) sin f
1  cos f 
3
2 2
M 1
(1  e 2 sin 2 f )  cos f
2
cos 2 f 
  3 2 
a  sin f cos f sin f (1  e )

1  cos f 
3
Z 2 2
M 1
(1  e 2 sin 2 f )  (1  e 2 ) sin 2 f  cos 2 f 
2
ds  
a  (1  e 2
) sin 3
f 
 
3
a 1  cos f (1  e 2 ) sin 3 f )
2 2
M 1
M
(1  e sin f ) (sin 2 f  e 2 sin 2 f  cos 2 f )
2 2 2
X sin 2 f  cos 2 f  1 therefore
 
3
a 1  cos f (1  e 2 ) sin 3 f
2 2
M 1
(1  e sin f ) (1  e 2 sin 2 f )
2 2 2

3
 cos f  2 2
a 1   (1  e 2 ) sin 3 f
sin f 
2
M  3
(1  e sin f ) 2
2 2
3
 sin f  cos f 
2 2 2
a(1  e 2 )   sin 3 f
 sin f
2

M 3
(1  e sin f ) 2
2 2
3
 1  2  1 
a(1  e 2 )  2  sin 3 f a(1  e 2 )  3  sin 3 f
 sin f   sin f  a(1  e 2 )
M 3
 3
 3
(2.56)
(1  e 2 sin 2 f ) 2 (1  e 2 sin 2 f ) 2 (1  e 2 sin 2 f ) 2
The Radius of Curvature in the Prime

Vertical N
Several procedures to derive N.
One approach is the theorem of
Menier where the radius of curvature
of an inclined section is equal to the
curvature radius of a normal section
multiply by the cosine of the angle
between these sections.
In this case, we want to find the radius
of curvature of the normal section
knowing the radius of curvature of the
inclined section.
H

Vertical N
Z We have,
normal section in the

Prime Vertical
X

Vertical N
Radius of Curvature
of the Parallel
Parallel of Latitude
p
f
Normal section in the
Prime Vertical
N f
f
H
From figure, N is the length of
the normal line from the surface
of the ellipsoid to the intersection
of this line with the minor axis.
Fig. 2.12 Geometry for the use of Menier’s Theorem


Vertical N
Radius of Curvature
of the Parallel
Parallel of Latitude
p The radius of curvature of
f parallel is p, thus, from figure,
p  N sin(90  f )
N f p  N cos f (2.57)
f
H The angle between the prime
vertical section and the inclined
section is f, then
p  ( prime vertical radius of curvature)  cos f (2.58)

(N)
Fig. 2.12 Geometry for the use of Menier’s Theorem

Vertical N – Geometric Approach
P From figure, PAP1 represents the
Parallel of meridian through A, AH is the normal
Latitude at A intersecting the rotation axis. B is
an arbitrary point on the same parallel
B as A, while BH is the normal at B
A intersecting the rotation axis at H. C is
Prime Vertical C a point on the prime vertical section
section through A and also lies on the
meridian passing through B.
Normal at A K
intersecting H
rotation axis at H
P1
Fig. 2.13 Geometric derivation for N(1)

P We construct a normal at C that will
Parallel of intersect at K, the normal from A
Latitude since AC is a plane curve. We can
say that K is the approximate center
B of curvation of the arc AC. Now let
A
the point B approach point A, so that
Prime Vertical C C will approach A. The intersection
section of the normals will approach the true
center of curvature and CK will
Normal at A K approach the true radius of curvature
intersecting of the arc. Now, as C approaches A,
H
rotation axis at H C also approaches C so that K will
approach H. Thus the radius of
curvature of the prime vertical
section at A must be the distance
from A to H or AH.
P1
Fig. 2.13 Geometric derivation for N(1)

From figure 2.14, we have x  N cos f (2.59)
For any point, then

x a cos f
N ; and x  (2.29)
cos f 1
N (1  e 2 sin 2 f ) 2
f Therefore,
a cos f
X 1
(1  e sin f )
2 2 2
N
cos f
a
N 1
(2.60)
Fig. 2.14 Geometric derivation for N(2) (1  e 2 sin 2 f ) 2
a a2
At equator, Nf 0  a (2.61) At poles, Nf 90o   2 (2.62)
1 f b
The Radius of Curvature in the Normal

section Azimuth a
P Since N is generally greater than M, we
Parallel of associate N with r1 (in equation 2.41)
Latitude If a is the azimuth of a line for which
we are interested in the curvature, we
B have  = 90o – a. If r = Ra, we can
A
then express equation 2.41 in the
Prime Vertical C following form for the ellipsoid of
section revolution
1 sin 2 a cos 2 a
Normal at A K   (2.63)
Ra N M
intersecting H
rotation axis at H OR, MN
Ra  (2.64)
N cos 2 a  M sin 2 a
P1
Meridian Arc Length

P A differential arc was written in 2.47 as
Normal at B ds  Mdf
Parallel of B
Latitude s
A
Prime Vertical C
section
Normal at A K In order to find the length of the

intersecting H arc (s) between two points on a
rotation axis at H meridian with latitudes f1(A) and
f2(B), we integrate the above
equation to write
f2 f2 df
s   Mdf  a(1  e 2 )  3
(2.65)
f1 f1
P1 (1  e 2 sin 2 f ) 2
Meridian Arc Length

P The integral
df
3
f2 f2 
Normal at B
f   (1  e sin f ) df
2 2 2
3 f1
B
(1  e 2 sin 2 f )
1
Parallel of 2
Latitude s
A Represents an elliptical integral
Prime Vertical C which cannot be integrated in
section elementary functions.
Instead, the value of
Normal at A K 1
intersecting H
3
rotation axis at H (1  e sin f )

2 2 2
is expanded in a series and the

integration is carried out term by
term.
P1
Meridian Arc Length

1
The Maclaurin series expansion of 3
to be
(1  e 2 sin 2 f ) 2
1 3 15 35
3
 1  e 2 sin 2 f  e 4 sin 4 f  e 6 sin 6 f
2 8 16
(1  e sin f )
2 2 2
313 8 8 693 10 10
 e sin f  e sin f  .......... (2.66)
125 256
For shorter lines, simplified expansion maybe derived. If we let Mm be the meridian
radius of curvature at the mean latitude f  f1  f2 of the line, it can be shown
m
(Zakatov) that 2
 1 
s  M m f 1  e 2 f 2 cos 2 fm  (2.67)
 8 
For f  5 (length = 556km) the error in equation 2.67 is 0.03m. For lines less
o
than 45km in length, the term in bracket in equation 2.67 may be dropped so that for
shorter distance we have s  M m f (2.68)
Length of Parallel Arc (L)

P Computation of length of arc on the ellipsoid at
two different longitudes same latitude.
Parallel of
Latitude f
p Recall equation 2.57 that the length of
l
parallel radius p = Ncos f , thus, from
L figure L = pl  N cosf l 2.69
Prime
Meridian l=0 Where l is in radians
l
p l2
l2
l1
l
p L
Fig. 2.15 l1
P1
ASSOC. PROF. Sr. DR. AZMAN BIN MOHD. SULDI PPSUG, FSPU, UiTM, SHAH ALAM SUG456 GEODESY : ELLIPSOID COMPUTATIONS
AREA ON THE SURFACE OF AN

ELLIPSOID
From the differential figure ABCD,
we have
fdf AB  CD  Mdf (2.70)
C
B AD  BC  N cos f.l (2.71)
f
Letting the area of the differential
D
A figure be dZ, we have
dZ  AD. AB  MN cos f df l (2.72)

ldl
l The area between meridians
designated by l2 and l1, and
parallels designated by f2 and f1 is
Z   dZ
Fig. 2.16 Area f2 l2
element on the  l MN cos f df l (2.73)
f1 1
ellipsoid

ELLIPSOID
Integrating with respect to l, we have
fdf f2
C Z  (l2  l1 )  MN cos f df (2.74)
f1
B
f
In order to evaluate the integral, we
D
A substitute for MN to write
f2
f1
MN cos f df
ldl
l f2 cos f
 b2  df (2.75)
f1 (1  e sin f )
2 2 2
Fig. 2.16 Area

element on the
ellipsoid

ELLIPSOID
The integral in 2.75 may be given in closed form as follows (Bagratuni, 1967) Integrating
with respect to l, we have
f2
f2 cos f b2  sin f 1 1  e sin f 
f df  
2
b
(1  e 2 sin 2 f ) 2 1  e 2 sin 2 f 2e ln 1  e sin f  (2.76)
1 2  f1
Therefore, equation 2.76 may be written as

f2
(l2  l1 )b 2  sin f 1 1  e sin f 
Z 
1  e 2 sin 2 f 2e ln 1  e sin f  (2.77)
2  f1
As a special case, we compute the area on the ellipsoid from the equator to latitude f
completely around the ellipsoid. Then (l2-l1)=2p. f1=0 and f2=f, so that equation 2.71
becomes
 1 1 1  e sin f 
Z 0f  pb 2   ln  (2.78)
1  e sin f 2e 1  e sin f 
2 2

ELLIPSOID
Area of the half ellipsoid (f=90o), equation 2.72 can be written as
 1 1 1 e 
Z 090o  p b 2   ln  (2.79)
1  e 2
2e 1  e 
And in order to find the area of the whole ellipsoid, we multiply equation 2.79 by two.
OR
Let the surface area on the ellipsoid be A,
Therefore
dA  ( Mdf )( p dl )
 ( Mdf )( N cos f dl ) (2.80)
 MN cos f df dl (2.81)
Integrate 2.81 we have

l2 f2
A f MN cos f df dl (2.82)
l1 1

ELLIPSOID
From 2.82 dl = [l2 – l1], therefore
A  l2  l1  MN cos f df (2.83)

f2
f1
a(1  e 2 )
M (2.46) a
N
1  e 
Recall 3 (2.60)
sin 2 f
2 1
2
(1  e 2 sin 2 f ) 2
Substituting M and N into 2.83, we get
a(1  e 2 ) cos f
A  l2  l1 
f2
df (2.84)
f1
1  e 2
sin f
2

2
A  l2  l1 a 2 (1  e 2 )  (1 - e 2sin 2f ) 2 cosf df

f2
(2.85)
f1

ELLIPSOID
Expand (1 - e sin f ) . Let x  e sin f
2 2 2 2 2
Therefore
2 2 x (2)(3) x 2
(1  x)  1   .........
1! 2!
 1  2 x  3x 2  ...............
Substituting for x  e sin f ;

2 2
(1  e2 sin 2 f ) 2  1  2e2 sin 2 f  3e4 sin 4 f  ...........
Therefore;
 
A  l2  l1 a 2 (1  e 2 ) 1  2e 2 sin 2 f  3e 4 sin 4 f  .... cos f df
 l  l a (1  e )1  2e sin f  ....
f2
2 1
2 2 2 2
f  3e 4 sin 4 f1 sin f
 a (1  e )(l  l )sin f  2e f2
2 2
2 1
2
sin 3 f  3e 4 sin 5 f  ..... f1 (2.86)
VOLUME OF AN ELLIPSOID
Let the volume of the ellipsoid be V,
Therefore
fdf z2
V   p p 2 dz (2.87)
z1
b dz
p f
From equation of an ellipse
p2 z 2  z2 
  1; p  a 1- 2 
2 2
(2.88)
a 2 b2  b 
O
Substituting 2.88 into 2.87, we have
b z2  z2 
V  p a 1  2 dz
2
(2.89)
z1
 b 
 z2 
b
 2 p a 1  2 dz
2
(2.90)
0
 b 
Fig. 2.17 Volume of an
ellipsoid
VOLUME OF AN ELLIPSOID
 z3
b

2 b 
 2p a z 0  2 (2.91)
fdf  3b 
 0
 b3 
b dz  2p a  b  2 
2
p f  3b 
 b
 2p a 2  b  
 3
 3b  b 
O  2p a 2  
 3 
 2b 
b  2p a 2  
 3 
4
Therefore V  p a 4b (2.92)
Fig. 2.17 Volume of an 3
ellipsoid
Radii of Spherical Approximation to

the Earth OR Mean Radius of the Earth
In some application, it is convenient to let the earth be a sphere rather than an
ellipsoid. It is then necessary to find a suitable radius Ra, of the sphere to be used. A
suitable radius may be defined in several ways that are outlined in the following
sections.
The Gaussian Mean Radius
Defined to be the integral mean value of Ra, taken over the azimuth varying from 0o
to 360o. Designating such radius as Rm, and using Euler’s formula we have
1 2p 1 2p MN
Rm 
2p 0
Ra da 
2p 
0 N cos 2a  M sin 2a
da (2.93)
M
2 2p
cos 2 a
Rm 
p 0 M
da (2.94)
1  tan 2 a
N
Radii of Spherical Approximation to

the Earth OR Mean Radius of the Earth
Removing MN equation 2.88 may be written as
M dz
Which upon integration yields
Rm 
2
MN 
2p N cos 2 a (2.95)
p 0
 M 
2
1   tan a  Rm  MN
 N 
If we let t  M / N tan a , and changed

the limits, equation 2.95 maybe written as a 1  e2
 Rm  (2.97)
2  dt 1  e 2 sin 2 f
Rm  MN  (2.96)
p 0 1 t 2
Rm 
2 MN
arctan t a0
p
2 MN  p 
Rm   0
p  2 
Radius of a Sphere Having the Mean

of the 3 semi axes of the ellipsoid
Let aab
Rm  (2.98)
3
But, 1
b  a(1  e )2 2
Substituting for b we have,
1 2 2 
1
Rm   a  a  a(1  e ) 
3 
1 2 2 
1
Rm   2a  a(1  e ) 
3 
a 2 2 
1
Rm   2  (1  e ) 

3 

1
Using the Taylor’s series to expand the term (1  e )2 2
Let x  e 2
Therefore,
1  1  1  2
x     x
 1  2   
2
1  x 
1
2
2  ...........
1! 2!
x x2
 1    ............
2 8
Substituting for -e2,

e2 e4
 1    ............
2 8

Therefore,
 2 2 
  e2 e4 
 
1
 2  1  e    2  1    ....... 
 
    2 8 
e2 e4
 3    .........
2 8
and
a 2 2 a  e2 e4 
 
1
 2  1  e    3    .........

3  3 2 8 
Then,
 e2 e4 
Rm   a1    ......... (2.99)
 6 24 
Mean Radius of Sphere having the

same surface area as the ellipsoid
To find the mean radius we set the surface area of a sphere equal to the area of the
ellipsoid letting RA be the mean radius of the sphere, then
2 2 2 3 4 4 6 5 8 6 10 
  4p b 1
 3

 e 
5
e 
7
e 
9
e 
11
e  .....

Therefore,
4p RA2   (2.100)
RA 
 (2.101)
4p
Substituting for S we find

 e 2 17 4 67 6 
RA  a1   e  e  ..... (2.102)
 6 360 3024 

same Volume as the ellipsoid
The volume of a sphere VS , is expressed as
4
VS  p RV3 (where RV is the radius of a sphere) (2.103)
3
The volume of an ellipsoid VE ,is expressed as

4
VE  p a 2b (2.104)
3
Equating 2.103 and 2.104, we have
RV3  a 2b ; RV  3 a 2b (2.105)
1
Substituting for b, where b  (1-e ) 2 2 we have
 
1
RV  a 1  e 2 6
(2.106)

same Volume as the ellipsoid
1  e 
1
Expanding 2 6 using the Maclaurin or Taylor’s series;
Let x = -e2,
Therefore
 1  4 
   
 1  x   
6 2
1  x  1
1
6
6 x  .....
6 2!
x 5
 1   x 2  .......
6 72
Substituting for x with -e2, we have

 e2 5 4 
RV  a1   e  ..... (2.107)
 6 72 
ASSOC. PROF. Sr. DR. AZMAN BIN MOHD. SULDI PPSUG, FSPU, UiTM, SHAH ALAM SUG456 GEODESY : GEODESIC
THE GEODESIC CURVE

 Till now, we have considered the normal section which was a plane
curve on the surface of the ellipsoid.
 Using this normal section has the disadvantage of being unique
between two points.
 We now look at a curve called Geodesic for which there is only one
between any two points.
 Geodesic is defined as the shortest distance between any two points

on the surface of the ellipsoid and the normal to ellipsoid is parallel
to the principal normal to geodesic. If the surface is a plane, the
geodesic is a straight line, if the surface is a sphere, the geodesic is
a great circle. On the ellipsoid, the geodesic is a curve having
having double curvature and is thus not a plane curve.
THE GEODESIC CURVE

 The construction of the geodesic on the surface of the ellipsoid.
 1st level our theodolite at point A then aim at a distant point B
defining the normal section curve AaB. Then go to B, level the
theodolite, aim at A defining the normal section BbA.
 Then turn the theodolite 180o to C and define normal section BbC
 Repeat the process at C and D and so on. As shown in figure.
d
b B c C
A D
a b c
Fig 6.1 Normal sections between close points
The separation of the normal section lines is small and becomes smaller as the
separation between the points decreases.
If we let the distance AB, BC, CD etc, become smaller and smaller, a unique curve
will be obtained between the points. This curve is the geodesic.
THE GEODESIC CURVE

 If we have two points A and B. We could construct the geodesic between
two points if we knew the appropriate azimuth of the starting segment.
 Such a curve is shown in Fig 6.2
Fig 6.2 The Geodesic between two normal sections

THE GEODESIC CURVE

Important property of geodesic :
The principal normal of the

geodesic at any point will coincide
B with the ellipsoid normal at the
point.
Fig. 6.3 Geodesic and normal sections

THE GEODESIC CURVE
Normal section does not have this

property because each point on the
B normal section does not contain the
normal at the point.
It is possible to find certain

properties of the geodesic by
mathematical considerations arising
from the definition of the geodesic of
being curve having the shortest
distance between any two points.
A
Fig. 6.3 Geodesic and normal sections

THE GEODESIC CURVE eg.

Clairaut’s Constant or Equation

S P’ Consider a differential triangle on the
a ellipsoid in Fig 6.4
P Mdf pdl
cos α  ; sin α 
ds ds
dl Mdf Therefore, Mdf  ds cos a (6.1)

P’
pdl  ds sin a (6.2)
P
Recall, radius of parallel circle p  N cos f and

substituting into 6.2, we have
N cos f dl  ds sin a (6.3)
Fig. 6.4 Differential figure on the ellipsoid


S
P’ Equations 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3 hold for an arbitrary curve
a on the ellipsoid. Considering triangle PSP’, the angle at
S is da , and since da is small, we can write
P
N cos f dl cos f dl
da  
N cot f cosf
sinf
P’ P’
P
Therefore, da  sin f dl (6.4)
ds Mdf
Equations 6.1, 6.2 and 6.4 are the primary differential
equations for the geodesic curve on the ellipsoid. Two
P P1 other equations can also be written, we have,
pdl
N cos f dl
tan a 
Fig. 6.5 Differential right Mdf
ds 2  Mdf   N cos f dl 
2 2
angle triangle (6.5)

P’ S
Using radius of parallel circle p  N cos f and
a differentiate with respect to f , we have
P dp
  N sin f (6.6)
df
Mdf
Multiply equation 6.4 by we have,
P’ Mdf
P’ Mdf sin f dl
P da  (6.7)
ds Mdf
Mdf
But, Mdf sin f  dp (given wi thout derivation)
P P1 and Mdf  ds cos a ;

pdl
Fig. 6.5 Differential right

angle triangle

 dpdl dp dl
Substituting into 6.7, we have da   (6.8)
ds cos a cos a ds
dl sin a
But,  (from equation 6.2)
ds p
dp sin a
Therefore, 6.8 becomes da   . (6.9)
cos a p
Rewrite 6.9 p cos a da  dp sin a (6.10)
Where equation 6.10 is a differential of p sin a which implies that,
p sin a = constant = k => known as Clairaut’s Constant
If we consider many points in a geodesic
p1 sin a1  p2 sin a 2  p3 sin a3  ......  constant  k (6.11)

Clairaut’s Constant at Equator

In order to find the constant involved in 6.11, let us examine the geodesic at two
specific points
1) At equator; p = a (semi major axis of the ellipsoid)
let the azimuth of the geodesic at equator be aE
p sin a = k
k
Therefore, a sin a E  k ; and sin a E 
a
Since p is a maximum at equator, the sine of azimuth aE at equator will be at
its smallest.
The maximum value for sine aE will be when aE = 90o, This will correspond to the
smallest value of the parallel radius pmin, so we can write
pmin sin 90o  k OR pmin  k (6.12)

Clairaut’s Constant at Equator

Clearly, pmin occur at the highest (or maximum) latitude reached by the geodesic.
We also can write
p  N cos f  a cos b (6.13)

k
Therefore, a cos b sin a E  k  cos b sin a E   sina E and we have
a
a cos b1 sin a1  a cos b 2 sin a 2  ........  k (6.14)
k
From 6.14, we have cos b1 sin a1  cos b 2 sin a 2  ........  constant  (6.15)
a
Thus, the product of the Reduced Latitude and the geodesic azimuth is a constant
at every point in the geodesic. At equator, b = 0, so we have
k
sin a E  (6.16)
a
Clairaut’s Constant at Maximum Latitudes
2) At Maximum Latitude; At maximum latitude reached by the geodesic a = 90o, we

have
k k
cos b max  but  sin a E
a a
Therefore,
sin a E  cos b max (6.17)
Thus we see that the maximum reduced latitude reached by a geodesic is equal
to 90o minus the azimuth of the geodesic at the equator.
We conclude that the general behavior of a geodesic as it goes around the

ellipsoid is as shown in Fig 6.6 where the azimuth of the geodesic is aE.
We conclude that the general behavior of a geodesic as it goes around

the ellipsoid is as shown in Fig 6.6 where the azimuth of the geodesic is
aE.
Maximum
Geodesic
Latitude fmax
tangent to
parallel
A
B aE
Geodesic
Minimum C tangent to
Latitude -fmax
parallel
Fig 6.6 The geodesic in a continuous form

SUG/GLS456 Geodesy: Ppsug, Fspu, Uitm, Shah Alam Assoc. Prof. Sr. Dr. Azman Bin Mohd. Suldi (Mrics, Mrism)

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LECTURE 2

THE MERIDIAN ELLIPSE

THE REDUCED LATITUDE

Q1 The angle at the center of

THE GEOCENTRIC LATITUDE

The angle at the center of

The Relationship between Geodetic,

Determine x and z using Reduced

The equation of this meridian

Determine x and z using Reduced

 x  OQ2  a cos b (2.19)

Determine x and z using Geodetic

Determine x and z using Geodetic

Determine x and z using Geodetic

Determine x and z using Geocentric

Substituting equation 2.31 and

Determine x and z using Geocentric

Relationship between the b, f and y

From figure 2.8, we write

Thus, we can have

RADIUS (RADII) OF CURVATURE ON THE

 On the ellipsoid, these two

 The prime vertical section

Euler’s Formula – To find the radius of curvature

The Radius of Curvature in the

 Differentiate the above equation

The Radius of Curvature in the

 Differentiate wrt f , we obtain

 Using 2.44 and 2.42, we have

The Radius of Curvature in the

The Radius of Curvature in the

The Radius of Curvature in the

The Radius of Curvature in the

At the poles f = +90o

The Radius of Curvature in the

The Radius of Curvature in the

ds Substituting x and z into 2.55, we have

The Radius of Curvature in the

X sin 2 f  cos 2 f  1 therefore

The Radius of Curvature in the

The Radius of Curvature in the Prime

The Radius of Curvature in the Prime

normal section in the

The Radius of Curvature in the Prime

Fig. 2.12 Geometry for the use of Menier’s Theorem

The Radius of Curvature in the Prime

p  ( prime vertical radius of curvature)  cos f (2.58)

The Radius of Curvature in the Prime

The Radius of Curvature in the Prime

The Radius of Curvature in the Prime

For any point, then

The Radius of Curvature in the Normal

Meridian Arc Length

Normal at A K In order to find the length of the

Meridian Arc Length

rotation axis at H (1  e sin f )

is expanded in a series and the

Meridian Arc Length

Length of Parallel Arc (L)

AREA ON THE SURFACE OF AN

dZ  AD. AB  MN cos f df l (2.72)

AREA ON THE SURFACE OF AN

Fig. 2.16 Area