Castellated universal sections

 These are formed by flame-cutting a standard universal beam

or column section along a castellated line, the two halves so
produced are welded together to form an open web beam.

 The resultant section is one and a half times the depth of the
section from which it was cut.

 This increase in depth gives greater resistance to deflection

without adding extra weight, but will reduce the clear
headroom under the beams unless the overall height of the
building is increased.
Castellated beams
videohttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCmxnM751ao
Castellated universal sections
Castellated universal sections

Cellular Castellated Beams

Castellated universal sections: Advantages
 Castellated sections are economical when used to support
lightly loaded floor or roof slabs.

 The voids in the web can be used for housing services.

 The shear stresses at the supports can be greater than the

resistance provided by the web, hence one or two voids
are filled in by welding metal blanks into the voids.
Castellated universal sections
Portal Frames
 Portal frames can be defined as 2 dimensional rigid frames
that have a basic characteristics of “A rigid joint between
column and beam”.

 Long span buildings are those exceeding 12m in span,

enclose for span of 20m-60m.

 Driven by the needs to achieve low-cost building envelope.

 They are usually made of steel, but can be made of concrete or

timber.
Portal Frames
 The main objective of this form of design is to reduce bending
moment in the beam, which allow the frame to act as one structural
unit.

 They are generally used for single storey building which required a
large unobstructed floor space. Factory, warehouse, cinema & etc.

 To allow such long span of open space, these buildings can be

designed and constructed with special structures such as:
 Portal frames
 Space frames (Lecture 8)
 Shell roof structures (Lecture 8)
 Tension membrane structures (Lecture 8)
Portal Frames
 These special structures will form the structural roofing of long
span buildings, which not only perform the primary roof
functions of providing;

 weather protection,
 thermal insulation,
 sound insulation and
 restricting spread of fire over the roof surface,
 but they also have to provide sufficient strength and natural
daylight into the interior space.

 These special structures are increasingly become the common

architectural technique to enhance the building design.
Portal Frames: Basic Composition
 Portal frames constructed of precast concrete or steel can take the
form of usual roof profiles used for single or multi-span buildings
such as flat, pitched and arch.

 The portal structure is designed in such a way that is has no

intermediate columns. It comprises a series of transverse frames
braced longitudinally.

 The primary steel work consists of columns and rafters.

 The light gauge secondary steel work consists of side rails for wall
(to receive wall cladding) and purlins for roof (to receive roof
decking).
Portal Frames: Basic Composition
Construction methods of Portal Frames
 The roof and the wall cladding separate the enclosed space
from the external environment as well as providing
thermal and acoustics insulation.

 The walls can be of similar material fixed to sheeting rails

attached to the supporting members or clad with brick or
infill panels.

 The frames are connected over the spanning members

with purlins designed to carry the fixing of lightweight
insulated roof coverings or decking.
Portal frames for factory
Simply supported beam
Portal Frames
 The transfer of stresses from the beam to the column can result in a
rotational movement at the foundation which can be overcome by the
introduction of a pin or hinge joint.

 The pin or hinge will allow free rotation to take place at the point of fixity
whilst transmitting both load and shear from one member to another.

 In practice, a true ‘pivot’ is not always required but there must be enough
movement to ensure that the rigidity at the point of connection is low
enough to overcome the tendency of rotational movement.

 Hinges can be introduced into a portal frame at the base connections and at
the apex of beam, giving 3 basic forms of portal frame.
1. Fixed or rigid portal frame
All joints or connections are rigid giving lower bending moments.

Used for small to medium span frames where moments at foundations are
not excessive.
2. Two-pin portal frame
Pin or hinge joints used at foundation connections to eliminate tendency of
base to rotate.

Used where high base moments and weak ground are encountered.
3. Three-pin portal frame
Pin or hinge joints used at foundation connections and at centre of
beam which reduces bending moment in beam but increases
deflection.

Advantages are the design is simplified and they are easier to erect
on site when preformed in sections.
Steel Portal Frames
 Steel portal frames can be fabricated from standard universal beam,
column and box sections. Alternatively, a lattice construction of flats,
angles or tubular can be used.

 Majority of systems employ welding techniques for the fabrication of

components, which are joined together on site using bolts or
welding.

 An alternative system uses special knee joint, apex joint and base
joint components, which are joined on site to square-cut standard
beam or column sections.

 The foundation is usually a reinforced concrete isolated base or pad

foundation designed to suit loading and ground-bearing conditions.
Typical section details of steel rigid
portal frame (1)
Typical section details of steel rigid
portal frame (2)
 In the majority of cases, a nominally pinned base is provided, because of the
difficulty and expense of providing a rigid base.

 A rigid base will involve a more expensive base detail, but more
significantly, the foundation must also resist the moment, which increases
costs significantly compared to a nominally pinned base.

Stiffened base plate connections and column bases cast in pockets are other
options available. However, rigid base connections are not commonly used
because of the associated foundation costs.

 If a column base is nominally pinned, it is recommended that the base

be modelled as perfectly pinned when using elastic global analysis to
calculate the moments and forces in the frame under ULS loading.
Rigid Base
Typical section details of steel three-pin portal
frame (3)
The connection of frame to foundation
 The connection of frame to foundation can be by one of three methods:

 1. Pocket connection:
 the foot of column is inserted and grouted into a pocket formed in the concrete
foundation. Some designs have gussets welded to the flanges of columns to facilitate
levelling.

 2. Base plate connection:

 traditional structural steelwork column to foundation connection using a slab or
gusset base fixed to a reinforced concrete foundation with cast-in holding-down
bolts.

 3. Hinge connection:
 special bearing plates designed to accommodate pin devices are fixed by holding-
down bolts to the concrete foundation to give the required low degree of rigidity at
the connection.
Typical section details of steel portal frame:
column to foundation pocket connection
Typical section details of steel portal frame:
column to foundation hinge connection
Typical section details of steel portal frame:
beam to column rigid knee joints
Steel Portal Frame: Beam to Column Rigid knee joints
Typical section details of Steel Portal Frame:
welded splice joints
Typical section details of steel portal
frame: Bolted Splice Joint
Typical section details of Steel Portal
Frame: Apex Rigid Joints
Advantages and disadvantages of Steel Portal Frames
 Factory-controlled production which gives a standard range of
manufacturer’s systems.

 A frame of good wind resistance.

 Ease of site assembly using semi-skilled operatives.

 The overall dead load of a steel portal frame is less than that of a
comparable precast concrete portal frame.

 Steel being a corrosive material, will require a long-life protection of

coating or regular protective maintenance by the application of painting.

 Steel has a lower fire resistance than precast concrete.

Metal Decking
 The thickness, formation/profile and overall effective
depth of these sheets shall determine its self strength and
the support needed when fixing/used.

 e.g. roof/floor thicker and deeper sheets uses less

purlins/joist(respectively) as its almost self supporting.

 This is another by product of steel that is produced cold-

form, from rolls of steel sheets, pressed to formation as to
patterned shapes latest in the market.
Metal Decking
Deck Terminology’s
Fixing Methods
 Spot or seam welding.

 This Is ONLY recommended to be done when decks are

used for floor underlay/formwork.

 (As the thinness of the material limits welding works)

Fixing Methods
Self drilling screws to fixing sections / elements (timber).

Anti-corrosive / galvanised complete with

neoprene(rubber) lined washers
Fixing Methods
Using clip-ons

Fixing clips come in as a vertical/horizontal

channel (cladding rail)
Types / Profiles
 Metal decking as produced comes in different sizes,
thickness and profiles i.e. suited to the present market
and use. Basically metal deckings in the building
industry are use for :-

 i. Wall ~ as cladding
 ii. Floor – as decking
 iii. Roof – as finishes
Types / Profiles
 Wall claddings are non-load bearing

 whilst the floor & roof deckings are, thus making it

necessarily thicker then as used for cladding.

 Metal deckings are materials when used on to a

structure/building can assist in catering for shear
forces onto the structure.