A Guide To Understanding

ELEMENTAL SPECTROSCOPY RESULTS

Getting the most out of an oil
analysis program begins with
understanding the results.
Having detailed knowledge of the analysis report helps pinpoint
problem areas. As experience in interpreting the reports is
gained, one becomes an expert in determining the corrective
actions that lead to increased reliability. Many times, catching
lubricant issues can save time and money in equipment repairs and downtime.

Elemental Spectroscopy is one the most fundamental oil analysis tests. It is used to determine the
concentrations of elements ranging from wear metals and contaminants to oil additives. The method
used to perform the measurement is properly termed Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission
Spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and the results are commonly referred to as ICP or spec results.

A noteworthy limitation to this test is that the sample must

Use Trending Over
Alarm Limits
Absolute limits typically only apply to
end of drain samples under a specific
set of variables; trending avoids many
of these pitfalls and can easily spot
abnormal deviations.
Trending works on both individual
machines and large fleets, trending
does not require reporting of hours,
make/model or sump size, and
trending works on both mid-interval
samples and end-of-drain samples.
Trending not only works independently,
or in conjunction with, limits, but it
also re-establishes oil analysis as a
truly predictive maintenance tool.
completely ionize within a very small, measured area of the
plasma. As such, only particulate within 0-5 microns is
accurately measured, and particles larger than 10 microns
are essentially not measured at all. Wear particles generated
under normal conditions and airborne contaminants easily
fall within this range, however severe wear and/or
contamination may produce particles too large for detection
and would require supplemental testing such as particle
counting or analytical ferrography.
Though additives are sub-micron and will always be detected
by this method, a second fundamental aspect of this test
must be considered: this test only measures elements, not
compounds, alloys or chemicals. Though certain elements
may appear in the results and be safely assumed to be from
certain types of additives, this test does not confirm the
functionality of those additives. While additives are slowly
consumed, so long as they remain present in the fluid, the
results will not decrease significantly.
CONTENTS
WEAR METALS..................................................................................................................................1
Iron................................................................................................................................................1
Copper ...........................................................................................................................................1
Lead...............................................................................................................................................2
Aluminum ......................................................................................................................................2
Tin .................................................................................................................................................3
Chromium ......................................................................................................................................3
Titanium.........................................................................................................................................3
Vanadium.......................................................................................................................................4
Silver..............................................................................................................................................4
Potential Wear Metal Sources .........................................................................................................5
ADDITIVES...........................................................................................................................................7
Calcium ..........................................................................................................................................7
Magnesium ....................................................................................................................................7
Phosphorus ....................................................................................................................................8
Zinc................................................................................................................................................8
Barium ...........................................................................................................................................9
Potential Additive Sources............................................................................................................. 10
CONTAMINANTS ................................................................................................................................. 11
Silicon .......................................................................................................................................... 11
Boron........................................................................................................................................... 11
Lithium......................................................................................................................................... 11
Sodium......................................................................................................................................... 12
Potassium .................................................................................................................................... 12
Potential Contaminant Sources...................................................................................................... 13
WEAR
METALS
Iron
Iron is commonly expected to be found in
samples as a wear metal, as it is the foundation
element in all forms of steel, which is by far the
most prevalent material in lubricated machines.
It will often correlate with other metals like
chromium, titanium, molybdenum and
vanadium; if the correlation remains
proportional as levels increase it suggests these
metals are alloyed, but if the other metals
increase disproportionally then this suggests
coated steel parts.
In gear and plain bearing applications, the steel
parts are expected to wear at a slower rate than
the mating gear or bearing, so it would be
expected to see a greater increase in copper, tin
and lead than iron. When iron is increasing at a
faster rate than other metals the culprit may be
corrosion, which can be confirmed by elevated
water content and/or a corresponding increase
in Acid Number.
Iron can also appear as a contaminant; when
granular clay oil absorbent (kitty litter) is used
near a machine, the dust it creates can be
breathed into the system and will appear as an
increase in iron, calcium and magnesium. This
dust is very abrasive and may lead to increased
wear.
Copper
Copper usually appears in fluid samples as a
wear metal, most often arising from brass or
bronze components. Whether gears, bearing
cages, guides, bushings or piston shoes, brass
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and bronze parts are alloys of copper lead, tin
and/or zinc. Being an alloy, the wear metals
from these parts will remain proportional as
they increase.
When copper increases disproportionally from
other wear metals, it suggests a nearly pure
copper part or copper-coated part. Plain
bearings typically have a copper layer below the
Babbitt layer, therefore any appearance of
copper in these applications may be viewed as
actionable.
In applications using some form of oil cooler,
whether a radiator-styled air cooler or a shell
and tube cooler, the tubes or commonly made
from copper. When a tube or entire cooler is
replaced, the new copper parts will oxidize
slowly for weeks and leach dissolved copper
oxide into the oil, but this increase in copper
will plateau and should not be viewed as
abnormal or damaging.
Another form of a harmless increase in copper
may be seen due to the use of a copper-based
anti-seize compound during reassembly, as any
excess will dissolve into the oil as well.
Perhaps the most concerning increase in copper
can be found in conjunction with the use of EP
oils, as some, but not all, EP oils may employ an
active sulfur extreme pressure (EP) additive that
will chemically attack copper and copper alloys
1

(a.k.a. yellow metals). The only remedy to this
situation is a fluid change to a fluid using either
a non-active sulfur EP additive chemistry, or an
anti-wear (AW) additive chemistry, as
recommended by the OEM.
Lead
Lead is an expected wear metal in any machine
using plain bearings, as lead and tin are the
most predominant metals used in Babbitt
overlay, with lesser amounts of copper,
antimony and/or arsenic. Typically, increasing
levels of lead from this layer are not considered
actionable, not until metals like copper or nickel
from a lower layer begin appearing.
Lead and tin may also appear due to leaching
from the solder used to attach cooler tubes,
often in conjunction with an increase in Acid
Number, however the common action is to
simply change the fluid.
Another form of a harmless increase in lead
may be seen due to the use of a lead-based
anti-seize compound during reassembly, as any
excess will dissolve into the oil as well.
In engine oil samples, lead may appear from the
use of aftermarket fuel additives like octane
boosters, but this should not be viewed as an
increase due to mechanical wear.
Aluminum
While lead is commonly thought to be wear
metal, that is not always the case. One example
would be an oil sample from an aluminum block
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WEAR METALS
engine compared to a steel block engine. The
block itself may be a source of wear metals
when the sleeves for the pistons are machined
directly into the block, as is the case in steel
engine blocks. With aluminum blocks, the
aluminum would be too soft to withstand much
wear, so steel sleeves/cylinder liners are
installed; therefore, the primary source of wear
metals in an engine produces similar wear
metals, regardless of block material.
In fact, there are very few aluminum parts in
machines that are wearing and oil-wetted, and
would therefore appear on an oil analysis
report. Reciprocating pistons, whether from
and engine or compressor, are commonly made
from aluminum, but the wearing component of
pistons are the rings, which usually sheds
metals like chromium or molybdenum. Thrust
washers and bushings are legitimate sources of
aluminum as a wear metal.
Another example of aluminum not being a wear
metal is in the differentiation between dust and
dirt on an oil analysis report. Dust is in the form
of silicon dioxide, and is typically small enough
to remain airborne and enter systems through
most breathers; dirt, on the other hand, is
aluminum silicate and is a relatively larger
particle that is less commonly expected to be
airborne or able to enter protected systems.
Aluminum silicate appears on oil analysis
reports as silicon and aluminum is an
approximately 3:1 to 4:1 ration
(silicon:aluminum), and frequently correlates to
an increase in particle count.
Users of activated alumina acid scavenging
systems may see aluminum appear as well,
typically in conjunction with sodium, especially
in the first sample after a new set of cartridges
is installed. A correlation with an increase in
particle count will likely be observed.
2

Tin
Tin is another wear metal expected in any
machine using plain bearings, as lead and tin
are the most predominant metals used in
Babbitt overlay, with lesser amounts of copper,
antimony and/or arsenic. Typically, increasing
levels of tin from this layer are not considered
actionable, not until metals like copper or nickel
from a lower layer begin appearing.
Tin may also appear in newer engines or rebuilt
engines from the piston overlay that is used, or
from bushings used in reciprocating
applications.
Lead and tin may also appear due to leaching
from the solder used to attach cooler tubes,
often in conjunction with an increase in Acid
Number, however the common action is to
simply change the fluid.
Nickel
Nickel is a wear metal found in some machines
using plain bearings, as lead and tin are the
most predominant metals used in Babbitt
overlay, with lesser amounts of copper,
antimony and/or arsenic. Typically, increasing
levels of nickel are from an intermediate layer
and therefore considered actionable.
Nickel can also increase as wear from some
steel parts. It will correlate with iron and other
metals like chromium, titanium, molybdenum
and vanadium; if the correlation remains
proportional as levels increase it suggests these
metals are alloyed, but if the other metals
increase disproportionally then this suggests
coated steel parts.
One form of a harmless increase in nickel may
be seen due to the use of a nickel-based anti-
seize compound during reassembly, as any
excess will dissolve into the oil as well.
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WEAR METALS
Chromium
Chromium is a wear metal found in the coating
of parts like valves, rods, rings and bearings.
Typically, increasing levels of chromium, and
possibly nickel, disproportional with iron,
indicate coating wear, whereas proportional
increases suggests steel alloy wear.
One form of proportional chromium and iron
increase may arise from non-wearing parts
made from stainless steel. Some lube oil piping
and/or coolers can be manufactured from
stainless steel which may corrode due to
elevated acidity, or erode due to particulate.
When the ratio of chromium to iron is 1:10 to
1:4, this is highly suggestive of stainless steel
wear; when seen with an increase in Acid
Number it is likely corrosion, and when seen
with an increase in particle count it is likely
erosion.
Titanium
Titanium is a wear metal commonly found
alloyed with other metals. Proportional
increases in titanium and iron are indicative of
ferrotitanium, which is typically used the
manufacture of shafts. Lightweight titanium
parts like connecting rods are alloys of titanium,
aluminum and vanadium; wear from these parts
is often disproportional with iron levels.
3

One form of a harmless increase in titanium
may be seen from to the use of paints, whether
machinist layout fluid to confirm gear mesh, or
recent repainting of a casing exterior using
aerosols. Most bright or reflective paints
contain titanium dioxide as a brightener,
however the titanium from worn or dissolved
paint is typically not near clearance size and
therefore not likely to lead to wear.
A common misconception about titanium is
attribution of wear from titanium parts that are
not oil-wetted, such as turbo manifolds or
turbine blades. While these parts made be
made from titanium, they are not in contact
with the lubricant, nor is their wear debris
expected to migrate to the lubricant.
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WEAR METALS
Vanadium
Vanadium is another wear metal commonly
found alloyed with other metals. Vanadium
may also be found in the coating of parts like
valves, rods, rings and bearings. Typically,
increasing levels of vanadium, and possibly
chromium, disproportional with iron, indicate
coating wear, whereas proportional increases
suggests hard steel alloy wear.
One form of a harmless increase in vanadium
may be seen from to the use of Bunker C fuel in
engines. Crude oil, typically from the Caribbean
area or Mexico, contains vanadium, and much
of it remains in some lesser-refined products.
Unburnt fuel will carry vanadium into engine oil,
appearing if heat drives of the fuel. This will
manifest as reasonably stable vanadium values,
that may correlate with nickel, iron, potassium,
sodium, aluminum, copper and/or silicon.
Silver
Silver is a wear metal used as on overlay on
some bearings, such as journal bearing for gas
turbines or wrist pin bearings on EMD
locomotive engines. Silver from these parts will
increase disproportionately with iron. Zinc
additized oils will accelerate the corrosion of
silver in these applications, therefore the use of
tricresyl phosphate (TCP) additives is
warranted.
Silver can also be found in some solders,
therefore silver, lead and tin may also appear
due to leaching from the solder used to attach
cooler tubes, often in conjunction with an
increase in Acid Number.
4
 WEAR METALS
Potential Wear Metal Sources

TYPE OF EQUIPMENT
Element Hydraulic Transmission Turbine
Airborne dirt Airborne dirt Airborne dirt
Cylinder gland Bushings Alumina media
Aluminum Pump housing Clutch/Friction disc contamination
Pumps Bearings
Thrust washers Oil cooler
Rods Roller/Taper bearings Bearings
Chromium Roller/Taper bearings Shaft coating
Spools
Bushings Bearings Bearings
Cylinder glands Bushings Oil cooler
Guides Clutch/Friction disc
Copper
Oil cooler Oil cooler
Pump pistons Steering discs
Pump thrust plates Thrust washers
Bearings Bearings Bearings
Cylinder bores Brake bands Reduction gear
Gears Clutch/Friction disc Shafts
Pistons Gears
Iron
Pump housing Housings
Pump vanes Power Take-Off (PTO)
Rods Pumps
Valves Shift spools
Bearings Bearings Bearings
Lead
Clutch/Friction disc
Pumps Bearings Bearings
Nickel
Gear plating
Bearing cage Bearing cage Roller bearings
Silver
Solder from coolers Solder from coolers Thrust bearings
Bearings Bearings Bearings
Polyol ester catalyst Clutch Solder from coolers
Tin Pump thrust plates Solder from coolers
Solder from coolers Thrust washers

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 WEAR METALS
TYPE OF EQUIPMENT
Element Compressor Engine Gearbox
Airborne dirt Airborne dirt Airborne dirt
Bearings Bearings Bushings
Block (corrosion) Block (corrosion) Grease contamination
Cylinder guides Blowers Oil Pump
Oil cooler Bushings Thrust washers
Aluminum
Oil pump Oil cooler
Pistons Oil pump
Rotors Pistons
Thrust washers Thrust bearings
Wear plates
Cylinder guides Bearings Roller/Taper bearings
Rings Exhaust valves Shaft coating
Chromium Roller/Taper bearings Liners
Thrust washers Rings
Wear plates Roller/Taper bearings
Bearings (Recips) Bearings (near failure) Bushings
Rings Cam bushings Oil cooler
Roller/Taper bearings Connecting rod bearings Thrust washers
Thrust washers Governor
Wear plates Oil additive
Copper
Oil cooler
Oil pump
Thrust washers
Valvetrain bushings
Wrist pin bushings
Bearings Oil pump Block Liners Bearings
Block Rings Camshaft Oil pump Gears
Iron Camshaft Screws Crankshaft Rings (cast) Pinions
Cylinder Shafts Cylinder Valvetrain Shaft
Lobes Gears Wrist pins Thrust washers
Bearings Bearings Bearings
Lead
Thrust washers Thrust washers
Bearings Bearings Bearings
Nickel
Gear plating
Bearings Bearing cage Bearing cage
Silver Solder from coolers Solder from coolers
Wrist pin bushings
Bearings Bearings Bushings
Bushings Bushings
Piston overlay Con-rod bearings
Tin Governor
Piston overlay
Solder from coolers
Thrust washers

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ADDITIVES
Calcium and magnesium may also appear
proportionally due to hard water
contamination, which may lead to rust or
Calcium corrosion, correlating with an increase in iron
Calcium is an additive metal commonly used in and possibly water content, if it has not been
detergent additives. Only when the calcium drive off by heat.
level deviates more than 25% from the new oil
or reference value should a concern be raised, In mobile applications, calcium may also be
but the likeliest cause if mixing or topping-off found in road dust, and will increase
with a different product. proportionally with magnesium and particle
count, and possibly silicon and/or aluminum.
With normal and expected additive depletion
Magnesium
due to usage, the additives are still present in
Magnesium is an additive metal commonly used
the fluid, and will still be measured at their
in detergent additives. Only when the
normal levels. Once they do not appear in the
magnesium level deviates more than 25% from
fluid, they have dropped out completely, which
the new oil or reference value should a concern
indicates a more severe degradation
be raised, but the likeliest cause if mixing or
mechanism or additive drop-out.
topping-off with a different product.
Calcium may also appear from the use of
With normal and expected additive depletion
granular oil absorbent products like kitty litter.
due to usage, the additives are still present in
These products are made from Fuller’s Earth,
the fluid, and will still be measured at their
which is a magnesium- and calcium-based clay,
normal levels. Once they do not appear in the
that has an iron contaminant. Proportional
fluid, they have dropped out completely, which
increase in calcium, magnesium and iron, as
indicates a more severe degradation
well as particle count, often indicate ingression
mechanism or additive drop-out.
of this abrasive particulate.

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Magnesium may also appear from the use of
granular oil absorbent products like kitty litter.
These products are made from Fuller’s Earth,
which is a magnesium- and calcium-based clay,
that has an iron contaminant. Proportional
increase in calcium, magnesium and iron, as
well as particle count, often indicate ingression
of this abrasive particulate.
Calcium and magnesium may also appear
proportionally due to hard water
contamination, which may lead to rust or
corrosion, correlating with an increase in iron
and possibly water content, if it has not been
drive off by heat.
In mobile applications, magnesium may also be
found in road dust, and will increase
proportionally with calcium and particle count,
and possibly silicon and/or aluminum.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is an additive metal found in all
anti-wear (AW) and extreme pressure (EP)
additive packages. Only when the phosphorus
level deviates more than 25% from the new oil
or reference value should a concern be raised,
but the likeliest cause if mixing or topping-off
with a different product. AW oils can be
differentiated from EP oils, as AW oils contain
zinc, at comparable levels, whereas EP typically
contain no or low levels of zinc.
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ADDITIVES
With normal and expected additive depletion
due to usage, the additives are still present in
the fluid, and will still be measured at their
normal levels. Once they do not appear in the
fluid, they have dropped out completely, which
indicates a more severe degradation
mechanism or additive drop-out.
Phosphorus may appear due to grease
contamination, as general-purpose greases also
contain AW or EP additive packages. Machines
with greased seals or those having undergone
recent maintenance may exhibit small increases
in phosphorus, depending on the rate of
leakage or overage in use.
Another form of maintenance that may lead to
an increase in phosphorus levels is through the
use of degreasing chemicals, either from
equipment or parts washing. Some degreasers
are phosphate-based, and may enter a machine
during high-pressure wash-downs, or be
residual contamination from aqueous
degreasers used in parts washers.
Zinc
Zinc is an additive metal found in all anti-wear
(AW) additive packages. Only when the zinc
level deviates more than 25% from the new oil
or reference value should a concern be raised,
but the likeliest cause if mixing or topping-off
with a different product. The zinc level in AW
oils is always comparable to the level of
phosphorus.
With normal and expected additive depletion
due to usage, the additives are still present in
the fluid, and will still be measured at their
normal levels. Once they do not appear in the
fluid, they have dropped out completely, which
8
 ADDITIVES
indicates a more severe degradation This type of friction modifier is found in many
mechanism or additive drop-out. engine oils, and some transmission fluids.

Zinc may appear due as a wear, but generally
any application where it may exist as a wear
metal will employ an AW oil, therefore the zinc
content would be masked by the presence of
the additive. Brass wear can be differentiated
from bronze wear, as only brass contains zinc,
and both contain copper, lead and tin. Solders
contain zinc, as well as lead and tin; galvanized
steel (from piping or tanks) contains iron and
zinc; and some coating contain zinc, as well as
chromium and nickel.
Barium
Barium was a detergent additive metal found in
natural gas engine oils, but is no longer allowed
in products manufactured in North America due
to toxicity concerns
With normal and expected additive depletion
due to usage, the additives are still present in
the fluid, and will still be measured at their
normal levels. Once they do not appear in the
fluid, they have dropped out completely, which
indicates a more severe degradation
mechanism or additive drop-out.
Molybdenum may appear as a wear, as some
piston rings and certain alloys of steel use
molybdenum. Molybdenum will increase
disproportionally with iron in a reciprocating
application, but will remain proportional with
iron with wear of an alloyed part.

Greases, though, continue to use barium in the

form of a thickener system. Machines with
greased seals or those having undergone recent
maintenance may exhibit small increases in
barium, depending on the rate of leakage or
overage in use.

Barium is often ignored, since it appears to

rarely, but this also serves as the justification to
investigate appearance of any level of barium,
as it indicates an abnormal condition.

Molybdenum
Molybdenum is an additive metal commonly
used in friction modifier additives. Only when
the molybdenum level deviates more than 25%
from the new oil or reference value should a
concern be raised, but the likeliest cause if
mixing or topping-off with a different product.

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 ADDITIVES

Potential Additive Sources

Element Function
Barium Rust Inhibitor, detergent or dispersant additive
Boron Anti-wear additive
Calcium Detergent or dispersant additive, corrosion inhibitor
Copper Anti-wear additive
Magnesium Detergent or dispersant additive, corrosion inhibitor
Molybdenum Friction modifier
Phosphorus EP additive, anti-wear additive, corrosion inhibitor
Silicon Defoamant additive
Sodium Detergent or dispersant additive, corrosion inhibitor
Zinc Anti-wear or anti-oxidant additive, rust inhibitor, EP additive

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CONTAMINANTS
Silicon
Silicon is commonly identified as a contaminant,
either from dust or dirt, which must be
understood to be completely different types of
contaminants.
Dirt has a different chemical composition than
dust, though they both are silicon-based. Dirt is
also made up of aluminum, with a ratio of
around 3-4 times more silicon than aluminum.
The presence of silicon should always be
compared to the aluminum levels, and only
when the ratio exists can the contamination be
described as dirt rather than dust.
The distinction is important because dust is a
much smaller particle and is always present in
the atmosphere, and therefore is more readily
breathed into a system than dirt. Dust particles
may be present even in new oil, hence the
persistent suggestion to pre-filter oils.
Silicon may also appear as a non-harmful
contaminant, especially after recent
maintenance, in the form of silicon gasket
maker or silicon-based grease. Both of these
sources may become dissolved in the lubricant,
but neither pose any significant risk for wear.
Lastly, while it may be relatively well-known
that anti-foam additives are commonly silicon-
based, i.e. polydimethylsiloxane, their typical
concentrations in new oils are at very low
levels. Expect 2-3 ppm silicon as an additive,
but once levels approach 10 ppm, even in new
oil, this likely represents dust contamination.
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Boron
Boron is an additive metal commonly used in
detergent additives, and occurs in some EP or
AW additive chemistries. Only when the boron
level deviates more than 25% from the new oil
or reference value should a concern be raised,
but the likeliest cause if mixing or topping-off
with a different product.
With normal and expected additive depletion
due to usage, the additives are still present in
the fluid, and will still be measured at their
normal levels. Once they do not appear in the
fluid, they have dropped out completely, which
indicates a more severe degradation
mechanism or additive drop-out.
Boron may also due to a coolant leak, often in
conjunction with sodium and/or potassium;
these elements are present due to the additives
used in many coolant formulations. The
presence of these elements alongside detected
glycol and water often indicate a severe or
bottom-end leak, but the absence of glycol and
water typically represent a top-end leak where
the liquid portion of the coolant is being
combusted or boiled out of the system.
On rare occasions, sodium may be present in
the form of an oil additive, which can be
verified with a sample of new oil for reference.
Lithium
Lithium is used in the most common form of
thickener system for greases. Generally, traces
levels of grease migrating into a lubrication
system are not harmful, however the additives
from the grease may create a negative synergy
with the additives in the lubricant.
11

Sodium
Sodium is an indicator of a coolant leak, often in
conjunction with potassium and/or boron;
these elements are present due to the additives
used in many coolant formulations. The
presence of these elements alongside detected
glycol and water often indicate a severe or
bottom-end leak, but the absence of glycol and
water typically represent a top-end leak where
the liquid portion of the coolant is being
combusted or boiled out of the system.
Sodium is also an indicator of contamination
with salt, whether it is from moisture ingression
from a nearby source of salt water, or airborne
particulate ingression from nearby roads that
are salted in the wintertime.
Users of activated alumina acid scavenging
systems may see sodium appear as well,
typically in conjunction with aluminum,
especially in the first sample after a new set of
cartridges is installed. A correlation with an
increase in particle count will likely be
observed.
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CONTAMINANTS
On rare occasions, boron may be due to
residual cleaner from drum/tote recycling, as
the cleaners that are used may be borate-
based.
Potassium
Potassium is an indicator of a coolant leak,
often in conjunction with sodium and/or boron;
these elements are present due to the additives
used in many coolant formulations. The
presence of these elements alongside detected
glycol and water often indicate a severe or
bottom-end leak, but the absence of glycol and
water typically represent a top-end leak where
the liquid portion of the coolant is being
combusted or boiled out of the system
Potassium is also an indicator of airborne
particulate ingression from fly ash or smoke.
The fly ash or smoke need not be visible, nor
nearby, the only criteria is that the asset be
located within the fallout zone. Forest fire
smoke frequently migrates hundreds and
hundreds of miles, and will last for nearly as
long as the original fire burned. This form of
particulate is small enough to pass through
even high-quality particulate breathers.
12
 CONTAMINANTS

Potential Contaminant Sources

Element Function
Aluminum Airborne dirt (correlation ~3:1 Silicon/Aluminum), grease thickener
Barium Grease additive
Boron Coolant additive, detergent additive, oil drum cleansing agent
Calcium Fuller’s earth, dust, gypsum, hard water
Lithium Grease thickener
Magnesium Fuller’s earth, hard water
Potassium Coolant additive, fly ash
Silicon Airborne dust or dirt (as above), defoamant additive, sealant
Sodium Coolant additive, detergent or dispersant additive, airborne salt
Titanium Machinist layout paint, aerosol paint
Vanadium Residual fuel contamination (Bunker C)

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