Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Nutrition Handbook
Contributors:
Ana Abad-Jorge, MS, RD, CNSD
Le Banh, MS, RD, CNSD
Cathleen Cumming, MS, RD, CNSD
Chitra Dadlani, RD
Pallavi Dharamsi, RD
Stacey Evans, RD
Lynda Fanning, MPH, RD
Theresa Fessler, MS, RD, CNSC
Tamara Karosanidze, MS, RD, CNSC
Joseph Krenitsky, MS, RD
Stacey McCray, RD
Carol Parrish, RD, MS
Kelly O’Donnell, MS, RD, CNSC
Wendy Phillips, MS, RD, CNSD
Kate Robertson, RD, CNSD
Sherrie Walker, RD, CNSD
Kate Willcutts, MS, RD, CNSC
Andrea Yoder, RD, CNSD
APPENDIX…………………….……………………………….………...40
The clinical dietitians provide the following at the University of Virginia (UVA) Medical Center:
Develop and implement a nutrition care plan tailored to the individual patient’s needs.
Follow-up with revision of care plan as needed to improve nutritional status, as well as
nutrition counseling as needed.
Each patient unit has designated dietitians who can be contacted via EPIC, the Simon Paging
System, or by calling the Nutrition Services Office at 4-2286. The clinical dietitians are available
weekdays between 8:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. On weekends, a clinical dietitian is on site on Saturdays
for oral diet/education issues and a nutrition support dietitian is on site on Sundays.
Nutrition Support Teams: Medicine/Surgery: There are two nutrition support teams for adult
patients at UVA HS.
1
Section 1. NUTRITIONAL ASSESSMENT OF ADULT PATIENTS
INTRODUCTION
Nutritional assessment is evaluating nutritional status and determining the presence of, or
risk of developing malnutrition. Nutritional assessment does not stop with the first
evaluation, but is an ongoing process to monitor the adequacy and effectiveness of
nutritional support measures. The four basic components of nutritional assessment
include (1):
1. Anthropometrics
2. Clinical Information
3. Nutrition Intake History
4. Biochemical Data
I. ANTHROPOMETRICS
The most common anthropometrics used in the hospital setting are weight (wt), height (ht)
and weight/height (wt/ht) and their comparisons to standard values (2).
A. Estimating ideal body weight (IBW) or desirable wt/ht (Hamwi Method) (3):
Males: 106 # for the first 5 feet of ht plus 6 # for each additional inch (+/- 10%)
Females: 100 # for the first 5 feet of ht plus 5 # for each additional inch (+/- 10%)
B. Height/Weight:
Body weight is used in nutrition assessment as an overall indicator of body fat and somatic
protein stores. Body weight is compared with usual body weight (UBW) and with IBW as
determined by the Hamwi method. It is important to use clinical judgment and avoid using
a weight that is based on a fluid overloaded state when calculating nutritional needs. In
these cases, the patient’s “euvolemic” or estimated euvolemic weight should be used.
1. Weight:
Weight is used to assess a patient’s degree of malnutrition including evaluation of
current weight as a percentage of IBW, current weight as percentage of usual
weight and recent weight change. The following formulas were devised by
Blackburn et al (4). Clinical judgment must also be used to consider frame size and
muscle mass and to adjust for any edema or excess fluid present.
2
Evaluation of Weight Change
Time Significant Loss Severe Loss
1 week 1-2% >2%
1 month 5% >5%
3 months 7.5% >7.5%
6 months 10% >10%
The American Dietetic Association (ADA) and the American Society for Enteral and
Parenteral Nutrition (ASPEN) recommend basing caloric intake on actual body weight
rather than adjusted body weight and using a reduced calorie per kg level (38, 39).
However, clinicians at UVA have agreed to continue using AdjBW to determine energy
needs. The research for justification either way is limited, and the only research that
focused on patient outcomes used an adjusted body weight assuming 25% of the excess
weight was metabolically active (5). Therefore, for patients who are overweight at >130%
of their IBW, the nutritional requirements for calories should be based on an adjusted body
weight rather than their IBW or actual body weight. AdjBW can be calculated as follows
(5):
The Body Mass Index or the Quetlet Index accounts for differences in body composition by
defining the level of adiposity according to the relationship of weight to height and
eliminates dependence on frame size (6, 7). However, it does not account for muscle
mass.
BMI = wt (in kilograms)/ ht (in meters)2 or wt (in pounds)/ ht (in inches)2 705
Table 1.1 Risk of Associated Disease According to BMI and Waist Size
Waist less than Waist greater
BMI* Category or equal to than
40 in. (men) or 40 in. (men) or
35 in. (women) 35 in. (women)
< 18.5 Underweight --- N/A
18.5 – 24.9 Normal --- N/A
25.0 – 29.9 Overweight Increased High
30.0 – 34.9 Obesity Class I High Very High
35.0 – 39.9 Obesity Class II Very High Very High
40 or greater Obesity Class III Extremely High Extremely High
*These values may underestimate the degree of malnutrition in some patients. An overweight or obese patient may be
malnourished if significant weight loss has occurred, but not fall into the category of malnutrition based on BMI alone.
Adapted from: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/public/heart/obesity/lose_wt/bmi_dis.htm. Accessed 3/3/11.
3
4. Weight Adjustment for Amputation
If a patient has loss of a body part or parts, IBW should be adjusted to reflect
amputation. Percentages for adjustments in body weight (2):
4
II. CLINICAL INFORMATION
Clinical variables can potentially influence all parameters of protein and calorie
status. Clinical information is derived from a variety of sources, some of which include:
Medical record
Physician and other health care professionals
Patient or patient family interviews
General observations of the patient’s physical appearance
Evaluation of psychosocial background
This combined data provides further information for the nutrition assessment.
Some physical signs of nutritional deficiency are summarized in Table 1.2
Hair Dull, dry, thin and easily Protein and Essential Fatty Acid
pluckable
5
III. NUTRITIONAL INTAKE HISTORY:
24 hour recall
3 day food record
(3) Problems with chewing, swallowing, motor skills or mobility alert the dietitian
to investigate potential nutrient inadequacies. Nutritional intake (calorie
count or 24 hr recall) data may help the dietitian assess the need for nutrition
support, education, etc.
Table 1.3 summarizes selected lab values/tests that are most often used for
nutritional assessment of the adult patient at UVA. Although these lab values are helpful in
the assessment of nutritional status, they should be used in combination with other clinical
data, and no one value should be considered as a predictor of nutritional status.
6
TABLE 1.3 BIOCHEMICAL DATA ASSOCIATED WITH NUTRITIONAL STATUS* (3,9)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Lab Parameter Interpretation of Values Potential causes Potential causes for
for high values low values______________________
TOTAL URINARY
NITROGEN ( TUN)* Calculation of N2 balance**: Growth Inadequate calorie or protein intake
Measures the net Pregnancy Increased catabolism
changes in the body’s 24 hr. protein intake – TUN (gm) + 2 gm] Recovery from illness Trauma
total protein mass** 6.25 Athletic training Surgery
Poor quality protein intake
Critical Illness
+4 to + 6: Net anabolism
+1 to - 1: Homeostasis
-2 to – 1: Net catabolism
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
URINARY UREA
NITROGEN (UUN)*
Measures the net Calculation of N2 balance**: Growth Inadequate protein intake
changes in the body’s Pregnancy Increased catabolism
total protein mass 24 hr. protein intake –UUN (gm) + 4 gm] Recovery from illness Trauma
6.25 Athletic training Surgery
Poor quality protein intake
+4 to + 6: Net anabolism
+1 to - 1: Homeostasis
-2 to – 1: Net catabolism
*Both TUN and UUN are used at UVA, however, TUN is preferred. When UUN is used to estimate nitrogen balance, it does not take into account 2 g for the dermal
and fecal losses of nitrogen and 2 g for the non-urea components of the urine (e.g. ammonia, uric acid, and creatinine). TUN measures all the protein in the urine,
so a factor of 2 grams can be used instead of 4. The above equation may not be appropriate in certain circumstances. For example, the unmeasured nitrogen
losses from burns, fistulas and drainage devices need to be considered and used in the interpretation of a nitrogen balance.
**Note: Do not do a Nitrogen Balance Study if unable to collect the full amount of urine, if the patient is anuric due to renal failure, or if the
nutrition provision has changed in the past 2-3 days.
7
Hepatic Proteins
Albumin, Prealbumin and Transferrin are not listed in the previous section as research
has shown that these hepatic proteins are not reliable indicators of nutritional status and are
negative acute phase reactants. Synthesis is impaired due to alterations in protein metabolism
that occurs during metabolic stress. Albumin, prealbumin, and transferrin should not be used as
indicators of nutritional status in hospitalized patients due to the effects of stress and
inflammation on these parameters (12).
REFEEDING SYNDROME:
Refeeding syndrome is a complication of nutrition repletion that can cause morbidity and
mortality in the malnourished patient (13). Complications resulting from refeeding syndrome
include electrolyte abnormalities (low serum values of potassium, phosphorus, magnesium),
glucose and fluid shifts, cardiac dysfunction, and impaired release of oxygen from oxy-
hemoglobin. The degree of symptoms exhibited depends upon the extent of malnutrition,
electrolyte supplementation prior to nutrition support initiation, and calorie and fluid load initiated
(14, 15).
8
Table 1.5 Summary Guidelines to Prevent Complications of the Refeeding Syndrome (20)
1) Anticipate patients at risk for refeeding syndrome.
2) Check baseline electrolytes before initiating nutrition support and replace
any low levels promptly – however, do not withhold nutrition support until
serum levels are corrected, rather replete electrolytes concurrently with
the nutrition support provided.
3) Initiate nutrition support, including total calories and fluids, slowly – this
does not mean that the enteral or parenteral nutrition has to progress
slowly to meet the “refeeding level” that has been predetermined.
Example: If a refeeding level of 20 kcal/kg is appropriate (which equates
to a continuous tube feeding rate of 45 ml/hour of a 1 kcal/ml product),
there is no need to also start enteral nutrition slower than this, as the
amount of refeeding calories the patient is to receive in 24 hours has
already been accounted for.
4) Consider additional sources of calories, such as dextrose in IV fluids,
glucose or lipid calories from medications, etc. and include these in total
calories.
5) Unless hemodynamically unstable, keep sodium-containing fluids to ~ 1
liter/day initially.
6) Monitor electrolytes daily for at least 3 days and replace any low levels as
needed. Be wary of the malnourished patient in renal failure with elevated
serum electrolytes secondary to decreased clearance, as they may be a
“late refeeder.”
7) Be prepared for accelerated refeeding and the need for aggressive
electrolyte replacement in the hyperglycemic patient while glucose control
is improved.
8) Routinely administer vitamins to malnourished patients, especially
thiamin; consider a “loading dose” prior to initiation of nutrition support.
9) Increase calories cautiously in a stepwise manner. Continue to monitor
electrolytes as calories are increased.
10) Outline a plan for nutrition advancement (especially if patient is to be
discharged) to prevent the patient from remaining on refeeding levels
longer than necessary, thereby delaying improvements in nutritional
status over time.
9
Subjective Global Assessment (SGA) of Nutritional Status
The nutritional status of hospitalized patients can be assessed by a variety of methods as discussed earlier.
The widely applied traditional methods rely on objective anthropometric measurements and laboratory test
results. Nutritional assessment can also be based on clinical criteria-that is findings of a routine history and
physical examination. Detsky et al (21) demonstrated a good correlation between the subjective and objective
measurements. Some of the advantages of SGA are:
Quick, easily taught, inexpensive
Adds structure to technical judgment
Postoperative infections can be predicted to a degree that is equal to or better than with objective
measurements.
Reproducible results
4. Functional capacity
_____No dysfunction (e.g., full capacity)
_____Dysfunction ____duration = # ____weeks
____type ____working suboptimally
____ambulatory
____bedridden
With the information obtained in parts A and B, the clinician subjectively assesses nutritional
status. The most important factor is weight change over time.
10
V. ADULT NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS:
Age
Activity level
Current nutritional status
Current metabolic and disease states
Individualized goals
The following section will provide a brief overview of the determination of nutritional
requirements including calories, protein and fluid for the hospitalized patient.
Calorie Requirements:
Estimating energy expenditure in hospitalized adult patients is challenging. If available,
indirect calorimetry can be used to measure energy expenditure using gas exchange (see
following section). Frequent measurements are required to appropriately identify a patient’s
energy expenditure (22). When indirect calorimetry is not possible, there are many possible
predictive equations (see ADA’s Evidence Analysis Library at www.adaevidencelibrary.com)
(38). Most of these predictive equations are based on a single indirect calorimetry study per
patient. The high degree of variability of an acutely ill patient’s energy needs from day to day
limits the ability to make strong conclusions regarding the superiority of any prediction equation
over another. More importantly, whichever method (indirect calorimetry or predictive equation) is
used, the optimal energy provision for hospitalized patients has yet to be determined (22).
Significantly underfeeding or overfeeding is harmful; (23, 24) however, there is no evidence that
feeding a patient the calories they are burning based on indirect calorimetry (or based on any
predictive equation) will improve outcome. Acutely ill patients remain catabolic despite meeting
or exceeding full calorie expenditure (25, 26). In fact, there is evidence that feeding critically ill
patients 100% of predicted energy needs may be harmful (27). For a discussion regarding
permissive underfeeding of obese patients, please refer to the guidelines published in 2009 for
the provision and assessment of nutrition support therapy by ASPEN and the Society for Critical
Care Medicine (SCCM) (39).
At UVAHS, the calories per kilogram method is most often used to estimate a patient’s
caloric needs to simplify calculations:
*Calorie requirements may vary based on degree of stress and need for
repletion
Other factors:
Pregnancy: Add 300 kcal/day
Lactation: Add 500 kcal/day
11
Clinical judgment should be used to individualize each patient’s estimated needs, and
frequent monitoring and evaluation of nutrition interventions should occur to make adjustments
as needed based on patient response.
Note: Patient has to be intubated for the test to be performed, FIO2 60%, no air leak or chest
tube leak.
12
4. Nutrition requirements for burn patients (32-35):
There are more than 30 predictive equations to estimate energy needs for burn
patients. At UVA, patients with >20% TBSA burn are provided kcals and protein based on the
guidelines below:
Energy Requirements = 30-35 kcal/kg
Note: once grafting has taken place, calorie and protein requirements will decrease
FLUID REQUIREMENTS:
Fluid requirements will vary among patients and may increase or decrease from normal
needs under a number of conditions including the following:
TABLE 1.10 Potential Source of Fluid Excess or Loss in Hospitalized Patients (20)
Intake Output
Maintenance IV fluids Chest tubes
Medications given via IV drip Percutaneous drains
Water flushes given with crushed Biliary /Pancreatic
medications Wound drainage
Water flushes to keep tubes Ostomies/Stool/Urine
patent Naso/oro gastric tube suction
Water contained in tube feedings Excessive drooling/Sialorrhea
or PN (cerebral palsy, Down’s syndrome,
undetermined neuromuscular
disorders or those following a head
injury or stroke
Fistulas
Insensible losses
Increased insensible losses including:
Burns
Tracheostomies
Fever
Kinair beds
13
TABLE 1.11 ESTIMATING ADULT FLUID REQUIREMENTS
1. By caloric intake (36): 1ml/calorie
When determining total fluid intake of the tube fed patient, the amount of free water in the
tube feeding formula and intravenous fluids needs to be considered. Intake and output records
should be monitored as well as weight. A rapid weight gain or loss of 1 kg may be the result of
a fluid gain or loss of 1 liter.
References
14
17. Crook MA, Hally V, Panteli JV. The importance of the refeeding syndrome. Nutrition
2001;17:632-637.
18. Matz R. Precipitation of refeeding-associated electrolyte abnormalities with intravenous hydration.
[Letter to editor] Am J Med 1999;107:302.
19. Mallet M. Refeeding Syndrome. Age & Aging 2002;31:65-66.
20. University of Virginia Health System Nutrition Support Traineeship Syllabus (Parrish CR,
Krenitsky J, McCray S). University of Virginia Health System Nutrition Support Traineeship,
2003.
21. Detsky AS et al. What is the subjective global assessment on nutritional status? JPEN.
1987;11:8-13.
22. Reid CL. Poor agreement between continuous measurements. The use of energy expenditure
and routinely used prediction equations in intensive care unit patients. Clin Nutr. 2007;26(5):649-
57.
23. Talpers SS, Romberger DJ, Bunce SB and Pingleton SK. Nutritionally associated increased
carbon dioxide production. Excess total calories vs high proportion of carbohydrate calories.
Chest 1992;102(2):551-5.
24. Casper K, Matthews DE and Heymsfield SB. Overfeeding: cardiovascular and metabolic
response during continuous formula infusion in adult humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1990;52(4):602-9
25. Frankenfield DC, Smith JS and Cooney RN. Accelerated nitrogen loss after traumatic injury is not
attenuated by achievement of energy balance. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1997;21(6):324-9.
26. Streat SJ, Beddoe AH and Hill GL. Aggressive nutritional support does not prevent protein loss
despite fat gain in septic intensive care patients. J Trauma 1987;27(3):262-6.
27. Krishnan JA, Parce PB, Martinez A, Diette GB, and Brower RG.
Caloric intake in medical ICU patients: consistency of care with guidelines and relationship to
clinical outcomes. Chest. 2003;124: 297–305.
28. Hester DD, Lawson K. Suggested guidelines for use by dietitians in the interpretation of indirect
calorimetry data. JADA. 1989;89:100-101.
29. French SN. Nutritional assessment via indirect calorimetry. Tech Notes. Medical Graphics
Corporation; 1987;1-12.
Harris JS, Benedict FG. A Biometric Study of Basal Metabolism in Man. Carnegie Institute of
Washington, 1919.
30. Long CL, Schaeffel N, Geiger JW, et al. Metabolic response to injury and illness: Estimation of
energy and protein needs from indirect calorimetry and nitrogen balance. JPEN. 1979;3:452.
31. Weinser RG et al. Handbook of Clinical Nutrition. St. Louis, MO:CV Mosby Co; 1989;130-179.
32. Herndon D, Tompkins R. Support of the Metabolic Response to Burn Injury. Lancet.
2004;363:1895-1902.
33. Lefton J. Specialized Nutrition Support for Adult Burn Patients. Support Line. 2003;25: 19-24.
34. Dickerson, R. Estimating energy and protein requirements of thermally injured patients: Art or
Science? Nutrition. 2002; 18:439-442.
35. Berger, MM, et al. Trace element supplementation after major burns modulates antioxidant status
and clinical course by way of increased tissue trace element concentrations. Am J Clin Nutr
2007;85:1293-1300.
36. Randall HT. Fluid electrolyte and acid base balance. Surg Clin North Amer. 1976;56:1019.
37. Water requirements in enteral support. Support Line. Dietitians in Nutrition Support: A Dietetic
Practice Group of the ADA; 1989;11.
38. American Dietetic Association Evidence Analysis Library. Available at
www.adaevidencelibrary.com. Updated 1/4/11. Accessed 3/3/11.
39. McClave SA, Martindale RG, Vanek VW, et al. Guidelines for the Provision and Assessment of
Nutrition Support Therapy in the Adult Critically Ill Patient: Society of Critical Care Medicine
(SCCM) and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (A.S.P.E.N.). JPEN J
Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2009; 33: 277. Available at http://pen.sagepub.com/content/33/3.toc.
Accessed 3/3/11.
15
SECTION 2. ENTERAL NUTRITION (EN)
INTRODUCTION
The gastrointestinal tract (GI) is the most effective way to feed the patient. If the
patient has at least a partially functioning gut, but is unable to meet his nutritional needs via the
oral (po) route, then enteral nutrition therapy via tube feeding should be considered. Enteral
nutrition (EN) promotes the usual physiologic integrity of the GI tract, has less risk of harm (line
infections, sepsis) and is more economical than parenteral nutrition.
Table 2.1 Benefits of Enteral Nutrition (compared with Parenteral Nutrition) (1)
Stimulates immune barrier function
Physiologic presentation of nutrients
Maintains gut mucosa
Attenuates hypermetabolic response
Simplifies fluid/electrolyte management
More “complete” nutrition than parenteral nutrition
o iron, fiber, glutamine, phytochemicals, etc. are not provided.
Less infectious complications (and costs associated with these complications)
? Stimulates return of bowel function
Less expensive
Need to bypass part of the GI tract to allow Pancreatitis, gastric outlet obstruction,
enteral nutrition esophageal cancer, gastroparesis
The need for supplemental nutrition due to Short bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel
decreased absorption disease, fat malabsorption or other
malabsorptive syndromes such as cystic
fibrosis
16
TABLE 2.3 UVAHS Adult Formulary
Note: All formulas are gluten-free, lactose-free and low sodium. These formulas are listed on the adult
enteral formulary at UVA as of 9/2008. Subject to change.
If a patient is willing to consume them, oral supplements can be provided to help achieve
calorie and protein goals. These are available in a variety of drinks and puddings. Some
tube feeding products are flavored and can also be provided as oral supplements.
Patient acceptability may improve if these supplements are served chilled.
Please refer to adult enteral formulary card for a list of current enteral products
and supplements.
Increasing protein
Increasing fiber
Fiber delivery can be increased using fiber additive products. 2 teaspoons of Benefiber
provides ~15 kcals and 3 g soluble fiber. Fiber should not be the first choice for
treatment of diarrhea or constipation (see Table 2.7).
17
HOSPITAL PROTOCOL FOR TUBE FEEDING ADMINISTRATION
a. Intermittent feeding: Check prior to each feeding and if residuals are more
than 500 mL, hold tube feeding for 1 hour and contact house officer.
Irrigate the feeding tube with at least 30 mL water before and after administering tube
feeds to ensure patency. Additional water to meet fluid needs is recommended on an
individual basis.
18
TABLE 2.4 ENTERAL NUTRITION DELIVERY: ROUTES OF ADMINISTRATION (4-7)
DELIVERY METHOD COMMON INDICATIONS PRECAUTIONS
Nasogastric (NGT)*/ Unable or unwilling to Tube must be secured
Orogastric consume adequate nutrition via
oral route Use CO2 detection device
e.g. patient intubated, sedated when placing tube.
*For patient comfort and to decrease the risk of sinusitis, nasal Salem sumps used for
feeding should be changed to a small-bore nasoenteric feeding tubes.
19
TABLE 2.5 INDICATIONS FOR CONTINUOUS VS INTERMITTENT FEEDINGS VS
NOCTURNAL FEEDINGS (5, 8)
TUBE FEEDING PROGRESSION (See EPIC Orders for Enteral Tube Feeding)
Initiation:
Standard protocol for initiation of continuous feeds for non-surgical patients: Start full
strength formula at 50 ml/hour x 4 hours, advance by 15 ml/hour every 4 hours until goal
of _______ ml/hour is reached.
Standard protocol for initiation of bolus feeding: Give 125 ml x 1 feed, increase by 125
ml/feed until goal of ______ ml/feed is reached. Allow at least 3 hours between feedings.
Note: intermittent feeding is not for use with post-pyloric feeding tubes.
Residual Checks:
Do not check residuals with post-pyloric feeding tubes.
If not contraindicated, place patient on the right side before checking residuals.
If residuals > 500 ml, hold feeds for 1 hour then recheck. If <300 ml at recheck, then
restart feeds using initial rate and progress per orders. If continues > 500 ml, notify the
physician.
Notify physician if feedings held twice in 24 hours.
Return up to 250 ml gastric residuals to the patient.
20
TABLE 2.6 POTENTIAL COMPLICATIONS OF TUBE FEEDINGS (2-4, 9, 10)
COMPLICATIONS POSSIBLE CAUSE POSSIBLE MANAGEMENT
I. Mechanical
21
COMPLICATIONS POSSIBLE CAUSE POSSIBLE MANAGEMENT
II. Gastrointestinal
22
COMPLICATION POSSIBLE CAUSE POSSIBLE MANAGEMENT
23
COMPLICATION POSSIBLE CAUSE POSSIBLE MANAGEMENT
24
MONITORING OF ENTERAL NUTRITION SUPPORT
PREVENTING COMPLICATIONS
Continued monitoring of nutritional intake is particularly important for patients receiving
enteral or parenteral nutrition support in order to identify inadequacies before deficiencies
develop. Recommendations for changing or supplementing nutritional support are based on
accurate and timely documentation of delivery.
Patients on nutrition support also need to be closely monitored to ensure that energy
needs are being met but not exceeded. Overfeeding can cause a number of complications
which may prevent clinical improvement.
Prolonged underfeeding may lead to loss of lean tissue, skin breakdown, inadequate
wound healing and immune dysfunction.
In the past, blue dye or food coloring was sometimes added to tube feedings as an
indicator of aspiration. This practice has not been shown to be an effective method to monitor
for or prevent aspiration pneumonia. In addition, studies have shown that critically ill patients
may have increased gut permeability, making them susceptible to absorption of the dye into
systemic circulation. When absorbed, blue food dye can act as a mitochondrial toxin causing
unfavorable outcomes, up to and including death. Methylene blue can be used to help
diagnosis enterocutaneous fistulas or during bedside swallow evaluations.
25
TABLE 2.7 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR ADMINISTERING MEDICATIONS
WITH ENTERAL FEEDINGS (13)
2. Flush the feeding tube with 20-30 ml of warm water or appropriate volume before and after
giving medication through the tube.
3. If more than one medication is being given at the same time, give each medication separately
and flush the tube with 5 ml of warm water between medications.
4. Use liquid preparation if possible (if patient does not have diarrhea).
5. If a tablet form must be used, be sure it is finely crushed and dispersed in warm water.
8. Consider tube site placement. Drugs that depend on gastric secretions for
breakdown/absorption may need to be substituted or given by an alternate method if tube
placement is in the duodenum or jejunum.
9. Medications may be given via NG, OG, ND, PEG or J tubes. Do not give crushed medications
via small bore ( 12 French) NJ or J tube, if at all possible, to prevent clogging.
10. Check with the pharmacist if in doubt about availability of medication in liquid form or whether
tablets may be crushed and administered via feeding tubes.
References
1. University of Virginia Health System Nutrition Support Traineeship Syllabus. Parrish CR, Krenitsky J,
McCray S. University of Virginia Health System Nutrition Support Traineeship, 2003.
2. Schwartz D. Enteral therapy. In: Lang CE, ed. Nutritional Support in Critical Care. Rockville, MD: ASPEN
Publishers Inc; 1987.
3. Breach CL, Saldanha LG. Tube feeding complications. Part I: Gastrointestinal. Nutrition Support
Services. 1988;8:15.
4. Gottschlich MM, ed. The A.S.P.E.N. Nutrition Support Core Curriculum: A Case Based Approach—The
Adult Patient. American Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. Silver Spring, MD, 2007.
5. Weinsier, RL, Heimberger DC, Butterworth CE. Handbook of Clinical Nutrition. St Louis: CV Mosby Co;
1989.
6. McClusky KW, Fishel L, Stover MR. Nutrition policy system: A model for patient care. JADA. 1987;87:200.
7. Page C, Andrassy R, Sandler J. Techniques in delivery of liquid diets: Short term and long term. Nutrition
in Clinical Surgery. Baltimore: Williams & Williams; 1985;60-87.
8. Bernard MA, Jacobs DO, Rombeau JL. Nutritional and Metabolic Support of Hospitalized Patients. W.B.
Saunders Company, 1986.
9. Breach CL, Saldanha LG. Tube feeding complications. Part II: Mechanical. Nutrition Support Services.
1988;8:28.
10. Breach CL, Saldanha LG. Tube feeding complications. Part III: Metabolic. Nutrition Support Services.
1988;8:16.
11. Lucarelli MR, Shirk MB, Julian MW, Crouser ED. Toxicity of Food Drug and Cosmetic Blue No. 1 dye in
critically ill patients. Chest. 2004 Feb;125(2):793-5.
12. Smith MC, Brown TR. Handbook of Institutional Pharmacy Practice. Williams and Wilkins Co; 1984-5,
288-310.
13. Enteral Nutrition Handbook, Ross Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio, 1989.
26
SECTION 3. PARENTERAL NUTRITION (PN)
Parenteral nutrition (PN) support is used to nourish patients who either are
already malnourished or have the potential for developing malnutrition and who
are not candidates for enteral support (1). Parenteral nutrition provides
intravenous carbohydrates in the form of dextrose, protein in the form of amino
acids, lipids in the form of triglycerides, and vitamins, minerals, trace elements
and fluid.
PPN is used only for a short time (up to 2 weeks) because (1):
The lack of peripheral venous sites that can withstand long-term high
osmolality infusion
May not meet patient’s calorie and protein needs
Indications:
Contraindications:
Because of the lower concentration of nutrients, PPN is not the optimal choice for
feeding patients with the following conditions:
This may increase the life of the peripheral line on average from 6 days to 15
days (3).
27
CENTRAL PARENTERAL NUTRITION (CPN):
Long-term Access:
Peripherally Inserted Central Catheter Line (PICC line), which is passed via
the antecubital vein, and advanced into the central venous system (5).
Long-term access may be obtained using a catheter that is tunneled into the
subclavian vein subcutaneously away from the insertion site.
Long term catheters that are tunneled under the skin, may reduce the
incidence of infection. Access ports may also be inserted under the skin.
Examples: Groshong, Hickman, Port – a – cath.
Placement of long term IV access may be surgical or non – surgical
depending upon the type of catheter used. Implantable devices are inserted
surgically, whereas percutaneous catheters do not require surgical
intervention.
28
CLINICAL INDICATIONS FOR PARENTERAL NUTRITION:
29
COMPONENTS OF PARENTERAL NUTRITION:
A. MACRONUTRIENTS:
1. CARBOHYDRATE (1,2,5,6)
Requirements:
Solutions:
Hyperglycemia
Glucosuria
Synthesis and storage of fat
Hepatic steatosis
Increased carbon dioxide production impairing pulmonary status/vent
wean
2. PROTEIN (1, 2, 7)
Requirements:
30
Requirements range from 0.8 g/kg/day to 2.5 g/kg/day. For specifics,
see table 1.9.
Generally 15 – 20% of the daily caloric intake should come from
protein.
Crystalline amino acids are currently the protein source for commercial
formulas. Amino acids are available in concentrations of 3 – 15%. Amino
acid solutions of 3% and 3.5% (without added electrolytes) are nearly
isotonic, making them acceptable for peripheral administration. Standard
amino acid solutions are usually comprised of 40 – 50% essential amino
acids and 50 – 60% non-essential amino acids.
2. FAT (1, 8, 9)
31
Propofol contains phosphorus-75 mEq (115mg or 37mm) / 1 L
B. MICRONUTRIENTS:
1. VITAMINS (2)
32
TABLE 3.2 AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION and FOOD AND DRUG
ADMINISTRATION RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PARENTERAL VITAMIN
INTAKE (10-12)
Niacin 40 mg 40 mg 40 mg
Thiamin (B1) 3 mg 6 mg 6 mg
Pyridoxine (B6) 4 mg 6 mg 6 mg
33
Iron is not routinely added to parenteral nutrition solutions. Iron may be
added to 2:1 mixtures but not 3:1 mixtures. Parenteral iron therapy is
indicated in patients with iron deficiency anemia associated with
conditions that interfere with the ingestion or absorption of oral iron.
The overall incidence of adverse reactions associated with the
parenteral administration of iron is low, but the potential for an
anaphylactic reaction requires that an initial test dose be given followed
by careful observation (13).
TABLE 3.3 Daily Parenteral Trace Element Supplementation for Adults (13)
Previous Guidelines Recent Concentrated Non-
Trace (AMA - 1979) 1 Recommendations2 Multitrace 5 Concentrated
Element ( ASPEN-2004) (1mL) MTE- 5 (2.5mL)
used at UVA
Zinc 2.5-4 mg 2.5-5 mg 5 mg 2.5 mg
Copper 0.5-1.5 mg 0.3-0.5 mg 1 mg 1 mg
Chromium 10-15 mcg 10-15 mcg 10 mcg 10 mcg
Selenium No guideline 20-60 mcg 60 mcg 50 mcg
Manganese 150-800 mcg 60-100 mcg 500 mcg 250 mcg
3 ELECTROLYTES (2)
34
TABLE 3.4 DAILY ELECTROLYTE RECOMMENDATIONS (15, 16)
C. FLUIDS
Standard rate at UVA is 75 ml/hour. See section on PN calculations to calculate
minimum flow rates.
PN SCHEDULES:
35
TABLE 3.5 STANDARD PN ORDERS AT UVA
Provides: Provides:
Macronutrients: Macronutrients:
750 Dextrose calories/day 400 Dextrose calories/day
300 Protein calories/day 300 Protein calories/day
500 Fat calories/day (250 mL of 20% 500 Fat calories/day (250 mL of 20%
lipid per day) lipid per day)
The differences between standard CPN and PPN are in the dextrose and total calories and have been
underlined.
CUSTOM PN:
IV lipids UVA are 20% or 2 calories / mL. To avoid wastage of lipid and to simplify orders,
order lipid by 250 ml or 500 ml bag per day. Decide whether 250 ml or 500 ml is more
appropriate based on the goal for % of kcals provided by fat or by maximal amount allowed
to avoid immunosuppression (~1 gm / kg body weight).
36
Minimum flow rates:
Dex/50 + g Pro/215 + 5 = minimum flow rate
Central:
[(Dextrose kcals X 0.42) + (grams of protein X 10)] ÷ 24 = minimum hourly flow rate. Add
5 ml/hour for MVI, trace elements, etc. Round up to nearest increment of 5.
Peripheral: [(Dextrose kcals x 0.15) + grams of protein] ÷ 2.1 = minimum hourly flow rate.
Add 5 ml/hour for MVI, trace elements, etc. Round up to nearest increment of 5.
37
TABLE 3.6 GASTROINTESTINAL COMPLICATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH PARENTERAL NUTRITION (OR LACK OF
ENTERAL NUTRITION) (4)
38
References
1. Madsen H, Frankel EH. The Hitchhiker’s Guide to Parenteral Nutrition Management for
Adult Patients. Practical Gastroenterology 2006; XXX(7):46-68.
2. Gottschlich, MM, ed. Nutrition Support Core Curriculum: A Case Based Approach. Silver
Spring, MD: American Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition; 2007.
3. Tighe MJ, Wong C, Martin IG, et al: Do heparin, hydrocortisone, and glyceryl trinitrate
influence thrombophlebitis during full intravenous nutrition via a peripheral vein? JPEN
19:507-509, 1995.
4. University of Virginia Health System Nutrition Support Traineeship Syllabus (Parrish CR,
Krenitsky J, McCray S). Parenteral Module. University of Virginia Health System Nutrition
Support Traineeship Syllabus, 2003.
5. Baumgartner TG. Parenteral macronutrition. In: Baumgartner TG, ed.
Clinical Guide to Parenteral Micronutrition. Fujisawa USA, Inc; 1997: 41.
6. Evans N. The role of total parenteral nutrition in critical illness: Guidelines
and recommendations. AACN Clinical Issues. 1994;5:476-484.
7. Miles J, Klein J. Should protein be included in calorie calculations for a TPN
prescription? Nutrition in Clinical Practice. 1996;11:204-206.
8. Hise ME, Brown JC. Lipids. In: Gottschlich, MM, ed. Nutrition Support Core Curriculum:
A Case Based Approach. Silver Spring, MD: American Society of Parenteral and Enteral
Nutrition; 2007:54-57.
9. Lowrey T, Dunlap A, Brown R, Dickerson R, Kudsk K. Pharmacologic
influence on nutrition support therapy: Use of propofol in a patient receiving
combined enteral and parenteral nutrition support. Nutrition in Clinical
Practice. 1996;11:147-149.
10. Parenteral multivitamins products; drugs for human use; drug efficacy study
implementation; amendment (21 CFR 5.70). Federal Register. April 20, 2000; 65:21200-
21201.
11. Fuhrman MP, Hammond KA, et.al. The Science And Practiceof Nutrition
Support. Dubuque, Iowa: American Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition; 2001: 94.
12. M.V.I. Adult UNIT VIAL, Manufacatured by: AstraZeneca, Westborough MA;
January 2004.
13. Fessler TA. Trace Element Monitoring and Therapy For Adult Patients Receiving Long
Term Total Parenteral Nutrition. Practical Gastroenterology. 2005;25:44-65.
14. O’Donnell K, Radigan, A. Hypermanganesemia in an Acute Care Setting.
Nutrition in Clinical Practices. 2003;18:374-376.
15. Skipper A, Marian MJ. Parenteral Nutrition. In: Gottschlich MM, ed. Nutrition Support
Dietetics Core Curriculum. 2nd Ed. Silver Spring, MD. American Society of Parenteral and
Enteral Nutrition, 1993:111.
16. Evans JN. The role of total parenteral nutrition in critical illness: guidelines and
recommendations. AACN Clincal Issues. 1994;5:476-484.
17. Lee V. Liver Dysfunction Associated with Long Term Parenteral Nutrition:
What are the options? Practical Gastroenterology 2006. XXX(12):49-68.\
18. Jeejeebhoy. Management of PN induced cholestasis. Practical Gastroenterology 2005;
XXIX(2):62-68.
19. Hamilton C, Seidner D. Metabolic Bone Disease in the Patient on Long-Term Parenteral
Nutrition. Practical Gastroenterology 2008; XXXII(1):18-32.
39
APPENDIX
40
APPENDIX 1. SELECTED LAB VALUES (ADULTS) AT UVA HEALTH SYSTEM*
*This list is not all inclusive. For example, drug effects not listed.
41
APPENDIX 1. SELECTED LAB VALUES (ADULTS) AT UVA HEALTH SYSTEM (Cont)*
Lab Parameter Normal Range Elevated with: Decrease with:
Serum Osmolarity 275 – 295 mOsm/L Inadequate fluid intake Excess fluid intake
Diarrhea Adrenal disease
Osm = serum sodium x 2 + Calculated values are Diabetes mellitus Inappropriate ADH secretion
generally lower than Diabetes insipidus - Hypothyroidism
BUN + Glucose
2.8 18
measured values Renal disease - Cerebral disease
Hyperlipidemia Porphyria
Hyperglycemia - Bronchogenic cancer
42
APPENDIX 1. SELECTED LAB VALUES (ADULTS) AT UVA HEALTH SYSTEM (cont.)*
**This list is not all inclusive. For example, drug effects not listed.
43
APPENDIX 1. SELECTED LAB VALUES (ADULTS) AT UVA HEALTH SYSTEM (cont.)*
*This list is not all inclusive. For example, drug effects not listed.
44
APPENDIX 1. SELECTED LAB VALUES (ADULTS) AT UVA HEALTH SYSTEM (cont.)*
45
APPENDIX 2. ADULT MULTIVITAMIN SUPPLEMENTS AVAILABLE AT UVA
Amt. A D E B1 B2 Niacin B5 B6 B12 Folate C Ca Fe *Others
Product/Form (IU) (IU) (IU) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mcg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg)
1 5000 400 30 1.5 1.7 20 10 2 6 0.4 60 - - -
Therapeutic tablet
multivitamin tablet
1 5000 400 60 3 3.4 20 40 6 12 0.4 90 40 - 1
Therapeutic high tablet
potency vitamins
with minerals
1 2500 400 15 1.05 1.2 13.5 - 1.05 4.5 0.3 60 - - -
Children’s tablet
Chewable
Multivitamin
Liquid multivitamin 5 ml 5000 400 - 10 10 100 21.4 4.1 5 - 200 - - -
46
APPENDIX 3. ADULT VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTS AVAILABLE AT UVA
Injection 2 ml 100,000 IU
Tablet 1 each 5 mg
Vitamin K
Injection 0.5 ml 1 mg
1 ml 10 mg
47
Vitamin C (con’t.) Injection 1 ml 500 mg & 1000 mg
Injection 1 mL 5 mg
48
Vitamin Form Dose Composition
Ferrous sulfate Tablet 1 each 300 mg
Phosphorus
Phos-Nak (Na, P-250 mg/mol
Phos, K+) Powder 1 packet Na-160 mg
K+-280 mg
49
APPENDIX 5 CONVERSION INFORMATION
mEq = mg
Conversion factor
1 mEq Na = 1 mmol Na = 23 mg Na
1 g Na = 43 mEq Na = 43 mmol Na
1 mEq K = 1 mmol K = 39 mg K
1 g K = 26 mEq K = 26 mmol K
1 mEq Ca = 0.5 mmol Ca = 20 mg Ca
1 g Ca = 50 mEq Ca = 25 mmol Ca
1 mEq Magnesium = 0.5 mmol Magnesium = 12 mg Magnesium
1 g Magnesium = 82 mEq Magnesium = 41 mmol Magnesium
1 mmol Phos = 2 mEq HPO3 = 31 mg Phos
1 mEq Cl = 1 mmol Cl = 35 mg Cl
1 g Cl = 29 mEq Cl = 29 mmol Cl
3. Niacin equivalents:
1% available dietary protein = tryptophan
60 mg dietary tryptophan is equivalent to 1 mg niacin.
50
APPENDIX 6 Electrolyte Content and pH of Selected Body Fluids (mEq/L)
Body Fluid Approx. amount Na K HCO3 H Cl pH
secreted per day
(mL)
Sweat 750 30-50 5 - - 45-55
Gastric 2000 - 3000 40-65 10 - 90 100-140 1.2-3
Pancreas 2500 135-155 5 70-90 - 55-75 7-8
Ileostomy varies 120-130 10 50-70 50-60 7
Bile 500 - 750 135-155 5 35-50 - 80-110 7
Diarrhea varies 25-50 35-60 30-45 - 20-40 varies
Normal stool 200 5 10 - - 10 varies
Urine varies 30-80 30-80 - - 50-100 4.5-8
Blood n/a 138 4.5 25 - 103 7.4
Used with permission from the University of Virginia Health System Nutrition Support Traineeship
Syllabus (Parrish CR, Krenitsky J, McCray SF). University of Virginia Health System Traineeship, 2003.
Adapted from:
Willcutts K, Scarano K, Eddins CW. Ostomies and Fistulas: A Collaborative Approach. Practical
Gastroenterology 2005; XXIX(11):63-79.
Frietag & Miller (eds) Manual of Medical Thrapeutics 23rd ed, Little Brown and Co 1982.
Grant JP. Handbook of Total Parenteral Nutrition. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co; 1992: 174.
Pemberton, LB; Pemberton DK, and Cuddy PG. Treatment of Water, Electrolyte and Acid-base Disorders
in the Surgical Patient. McGraw-Hill, Inc. Health Professions Division, 1994.
Adapted from: Corbett EC. Intravenous Fluids: It’s More Than Just Fill ‘Er Up. Practical
Gastroenterology 2007; XXXI(7):44-60.
51
Appendix 8 Recipe for Normal Saline equivalent mixture (enteral use only)
Dose should not exceed 2,500 units of lipase / kg / meal (Borowitz Peds Gastro 2002)
or 10,000 units of lipase / kg / day (Pankrease info)
High doses have been associated with fibrosing colonopathy (FitzSimmons NEJM 97)
Energy
52
Appendix 11 Normal Lengths of Bowel
53
54
55
56