COMMENTS ON THE THEORY OF HORNS

BY WILLIAI•I M. HALL
MassachusettsInstitute of Technology

ABSTR^CT

The presenttheory of hornsmakesa number of assumptionsand approximationsrelative

to the nature of the motion within the horns. This paper discussesthese assumptionsand
presentsthe resultsof an experimentalinvestigationof the soundfields within a conicaland
an exponentialhorn. These resultsshow the conditionsactually existingin theseparticular
cases,and thereforeindicate to a certain extent the validity of the above assumptionsand
approximations.

In order to get a mathematical solution for the behaviour of sound

within horns, the actual problem has been simplifiedto a great extent.
The problemwhich is left after the varioussimplifyingassumptionsand
approximations have been made bears sufficient resemblanceto the
original to be of considerableinterest. However, if no cognizanceis
taken of the effectsof the simplifications,incorrect or extremely inac-
curate conclusionsmay be drawn from the resultsobtained. The follow-
ing paper discusses the assumptionsand approximationsusually made.
A number of the points brought out have been verified by an experi-
mental investigation,which is describedat the end.
The limitations of the present theory may be outlined briefly. The
classicalequationsof sound,in the form in which they usually appear,
considerwaves of infinitesimal amplitude only. This limitation is im-
posedin order to obtain simple usable equations. The intensities nor-
mally met with in speechand music satisfy and therefore justify this
limitation in the regionsin which suchspeechand musicusually occur,
except possibly near the source.In order to apply these equationsto
the sound fields existing within horns, Webster introduced the idea of
reducing the three dimensional field problem to a one dimensional
circuit problem, making various assumptionsas to the nature of the
motion within the horn in order to make this possible.These assump-
tions will be discussed below. The more recent contributions to the horn
theory have consistedalmostentirely of expansionsof Webster'stheory,
assumptionsas to the nature of terminal conditions,solutionsfor par-
ticular types of horns, and so forth, but the fundamental method of
approachhas remainedsubstantiallyunchanged.
The use of such approximate methodsin the theory is justified only
by the approximate nature of the results it is desired to obtain. The
experimentalknowledgeof the facts to be explainedor predictedby the
552

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 1932] WILLIAM M. HALL 553

theory are in general no more precisethan the theory itself. Conse-

quently, no discrepancybetweentheory and fact is ordinarily apparent.
The presenttheory is limited largely by the initial approximationsre-
quiredin its formation.The nature and effectsof theseapproximations
and assumptionswill be taken up in two steps,first in connectionwith
the developmentof the classicaltheory of sound,and secondin the
application of this theory to horns. The results of an experimental in-
vestigationwill be presentedto illustrate or illuminate certain points
broughtup.
The equationsof soundin which we are interestedare the equations
of wave motion in air. This motion may be completelyand exactly de-
scribedby the fundamentalequationsexpressingthe conservationof
energy,the conservationof matter, and the elasticand viscousproper-
ties of the medium.
The relation' force- masstimes acceleration,which resultsfrom the
principleof the conservationof energy,may be written, neglectingvis-
cosity'
pdV/dt = -vp, or assuming
irrotationalmotion'
vp ov 1
+ + -- vv • = o. (•)
p ot 2

The equation of continuity, expressingthe conservationof matter,

takes the form'

---+_Vvp + or. v = 0. (2)

ot

The relation betweenpressureand density, which will be seento be

the connectinglink between the above two equations,may be ex-
pressed'
p 1 1
= pl/, = po1/,q__ po(1-,)/,Ap -Jr- po(1-=*)l*Ap
• + ßßß (3)
k ? 2(?) (? - 1)
where'

p = density
k = constant

p = pressure
P0= undisturbedor atmosphericpressure
Vp=variation from above, or acousticalpressure
• = adiabatic coefficient

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 554 JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY [APR1:1,,

Considerationof the kinetic theory of gas leads to the conclusion

that the adiabaticrelationis not incidentalbut inherentto the propaga-
tion of soundin a gas.
As mentioned above, the usual equationsof sound consideronly
wavesof infinitesimalamplitude. If this is the case,certain approxima-
tions may be made in the above equations.The term (1/2 VV •') in
equation(1) corresponding to the variation of velocitywith space,be-
comes negligible in comparisonwith the other terms and may be
droppedout. The sameis true for the term (VVp) of equation(2). The
terms abovethe first orderof/xp in the seriesexpansionof equation(3)
may be left off. The resultingequationsare linear. As the motion is as-
sumedirrotational, the velocity may be expressedasthe derivative of a
velocity potential, definedby'
V = -- Vqb. (4)

By proper manipulationof the modifiedequationsthe F•essureis found

to be given by'
p = pdcb/dt. (5)
The following relation results'
po 02b
V•'qb = 0 (6)
•Po Ot•'

which is the usualform for the equationof sound,in three dimensions.

The velocity of propagationis givenby'

This equationmay take variousformsdependinguponthe coordinate

system in which it is set up, i.e., whether in rectangular, spherical,
cylindrical, or other. Velocity and pressuremay alsobe substitutedfor
the correspondingtermsin ½.
In applyingthe aboveequationto horns,the three dimensionalprob-
lem is reducedto a one dimensionalproblem by assumingthe sound
energyuniformly distributedover the entire wave front and consider-
ing only motion in an axial direction. Thus, pressureis replacedby
force(equalto pressuretimesarea) actingon a crosssectionof the horn,
andvelocityby "volumevelocity"(equalto velocitytimesarea).
Replacingthe term in densityby its equivalentin pressure,and mak-

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 i932] WILLIAM M. HALL 55g

ing the above substitutions,the simplifiedequationof continuity be-

comes'

10(p.A) 0
at = 0. (7)
Separating variables, and replacing p and V by their equivalent ex-
pressionsin ½, this becomes'

q- -- q- -- -- log A = 0. (8)
c2 Ot2 Ox 2 Ox Ox

This is the fundamentalhorn equationasgiven by Webster. Its solution

for varioustypes of hornsmay be found in previousliterature.•
The theoretical behaviour and relative merit of various types of
horns are based upon the results obtained by the application of this
equation.
The meaning and effect of someof the assumptionsand approxima-
tions made in the above derivation may now be investigateda little
further.
1. The medium is considereda uniform, isotropicfluid. This is con-
trary to the kinetic theory of gases,but is permissible at ordinary
audible frequenciesand intensities as the discontinuities are of di-
mensionsinfinitesimal in comparison with the wavelength of the
sound.
2. Viscosity in the medium and wall friction are neglected. This is
known to be in error, especiallywhere small tubes and high velocities
are concerned.The equations of motion, taking these effects into ac-
count, may be set up for some cases• but are not easily solved in the
case of horns.
3. It is assumed that there are no external forces acting on the
medium. This simply meansthat the forcesacting on an elementof the
medium are due entirely to either the surroundingfluid or the accelera-
tion of the element.T'heaction of gravity on the air is neglected.
4. The motion is assumedirrotational. Except at high intensities
this assumptionis permissible.It should not be overlooked,however,

z Ballantine:"On the propagationof soundin the generalBesselhorn," J1.Franklin Inst.,

203, p. 85, 1927.
Crandall:"The theoryof vibratingsystemsand sound,"Chapter4.
: Page:"Introductionto theoreticalphysics,"Chapter6.
Rayleigh:"Theoryof sound,"II, Chapter19.
Crandall:"The theoryof vibratingsystemsand sound,"Append.A.

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 g56 JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY [A•a•,

but the effects should be taken into account at high intensities, es-
pecially where the shapeof the boundary of the medium is changing
rapidly. The circulatory currents,or drafts, near the mouths of large
hornsare very appreciable.
5. Only infinitesimalvibrations are considered.A numberof approxi-
mations result from this assumptionwhich will be discussedbelow. It
leadsto no startling fallaciesfor wavesof ordinary speechintensity in
free space;however,the amplitude of the vibrations at the throat of a
horn producingthis intensity at a great distancefrom the horn may be
tremendous,and the assumptionsof infinitesimal motion in such a re-
gion is fallacious.
First, it followsfrom this assumptionthat the equation relating to
the pressureand densityof the medium,
p = kp•,

may be expressed
asa linear relation,
Ap = k'Ap.

The possibilityof distortion as a result of nonlinearity of the medium

is thus ignored. As the intensity is increasedthe importance of the
higher order terms increasesvery rapidly. Their amplitude may even
equal or exceedthat of the fundamental, at intensitiesoccurring in
actual practice. For an exact solution for the behaviour of a horn this
would have to be taken into account. In the actual design and con-
structionof hornsit is, an attempt beingmade to keep the intensity at
the throat low enough to prevent excessivedistortion from this cause.
It also follows as a result of the assumptionsof infinitesimal vibra-
tions that effectsresultingfrom the departure of an element of the fluid
from its equilibriumpositionmay be neglected.Thus in equation (1),
the equationof motion,the term (1/2 Grad. Vs)is neglected.This is the
part of the term (dV/dt) producedby the departureof the elementin
questionfrom its initial position.
It has been pointed out by Ballantinea that the neglectedterm may
be even larger than the one considered,under conditionswhich might
be met in actual practice.
At the sametime the term (VVp) in equation(2) is neglected.This
term is of lessimportance than the one just discussed,as the pressure

3 Ballantine: "On the propagationof soundin the generalBesselhorn," J1. Frank.Inst.,

203, p. 85, 1927.

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 1932] WILLIAM M. HALL 557

(and thereforethe density)variesinverselyas the radiusof a spherical

wave, rather than as the square of the radius, as doesthe velocity at
small radii.
An excellent treatment of finite waves, showing the effects of the
various factors ordinarily neglected,has been made by ProfessorFay. 4
As the amplitudeof the vibrationsare consideredinfinitesimal,their
productsand squaresare neglected.The general effect of this neglect
is the same as discussed above.
The above assumptionsand approximationsapply in generalto the
classicaltheory of sound.They are mainly in regard to the amplitude
of vibrations, and are justified in most cases.A somewhatmore impor-
tant group,in sofar asthe theoryof hornsis concerned,occursin apply-
ing the classicaltheory to the hornsthemselves.Theseassumptionsand
approximationsare not nearly as well defined,and it is somewhatmore
difficult at times to seejust what their effectswould be.
The general procedureis to assumethat the sound travels in an
axial direction, and is uniformly distributed over the entire wave front.
The possibilityof nonradialvibrationsis rarely even mentioned,much
less taken into account. In so far as the radiation external to the horn
is concerned,the wave at the mouth is usually consideredplane. The
reaction at the mouth, if taken into account at all, is assumeduniform
over the entire surface.Usually the mouth of the horn is assumedlarge
enoughso that the reflectiondue to changein impedanceis neglected
entirely.At othertimesthe endcorrection
for pipes,asdevelope.
d by
Rayleighfor small cylindricaltubes,is applied. •
The assumptionthat the soundtravels in an axial direction and is of
uniform intensity over the entire wave front is, among other things,
contrary to simplephysicalreasoning.As the horn flaresout this would
require the energy to travel outward along curved paths, the energy
density being independentof the curvature of the path. In general,
exponentialhornsare designedwith the plane crosssectionperpendicu-
lar to the axis varying exponentially. This presupposesthat the ad-
vancing wave front in the horn is plane. This requires of the sound
energy, in addition to the above mentioned requirements, that the
velocity of transmissionbe greater along the more curved paths. The
conical horn is unique in that it isolatesa sectionof spacein which
spherical radiation may occur. Neglecting the reaction at the mouth,

4 Fay, R. D.: "Plane soundwavesof finite amplitude," J1. Acous.Soc. of America, 3, p.

222, October 1931.

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 558 JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY [A•,

wall friction, and so forth, the assumptionof uniformly distributed

radiation is not an approximationin this case.
In predicting the operation of various types of horns the same as-
sumptions are usually made as to the nature of the reaction at the
mouth of the horn and the radiation external to the horn. In the case
of two horns of the same overall dimensions,one conical and the other
exponential,it can readily be seenthat the wave front at the mouth
of the exponential will have a great deal shorter radius of curvature
than at the mouth of the cone.The wave front may not be actually
sphericalin either case,but it will be perpendicularto the wall of the
horn at the edge,and the aboveconclusionfollows.At high frequencies
the radiation from a flat vibrating surfaceis in the form of a beam; from
a sphere,spherical.For surfacesbetween these two limits the radiation
will vary accordingto the curvature of the surface.Therefore, the radia-
tion from the conicalhorn would be expectedto be more directed than
that from the exponential horn. This would presumably tend to in-
creasethe relative intensity at points in front of the horn, and unless
the completefield surroundingthe horn be measureda true comparison
of the efficiencies could not be made.
This samephenomenonhas another aspectnot ordinarily considered.
It is generallydesirableto have the discontinuityat the mouth as small
as possibleto prevent reflectionsat this point. A horn which flaresout,
and either eventually flattens out into one wall of a room, or merely in-
creasesthe curvature of the emitted wave front as in an ordinary ex-
ponential horn, presents a much lesser discontinuity than does one
with a plain conicalsection.
Furthermore, the interior of a horn with flaring walls is much less
conduciveto transversevibrations, or standingwaves, than is a plain
conein which the sidesare very nearly parallel. Suchvibrations within
conicalhornshave previouslybeen investigateds and shownto be both
possibleand probable.
The above discussionindicates the general state of the present horn
theory and the desirabilityof obtainingdata on the actual phenomena
occurringwithin horns.
An experimental investigation of the fields within an exponential
horn and a conical horn of the same overall dimensions was carried out
with this in view.• This investigation consistedprimarily of an actual
* Hoersch:"Nonradialharmonicvibrationswithin a conicalhorn," PhysicalReview, 25,
218, 1925.
• Hall: "An investigation of sound fields within regionsrestricted by finite boundaries,"
M.I.T. thesis,1932.

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 1932] WILLIAM M. HALL 559

40

5
Relative
phase
Jndeqree5

16

Relafive
pressure
amplffude

PLATEI. Relativeamplitudeand phaseof pressurewithin exponentialhornat 120 c.p.s.

Diameter of mouth of horn 72 cm.
Length of horn 173 cm.
Area given by A = A • e-ø46x.

P•AT• II. Rdativeamplitudeand phaseof pressurewithin exronenv•av

•' •' • horn at 800 c.p.s.

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 560 JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY [Aea•,

point by point determinationof the amplitudeand phaseof the sound

pressureat various frequencies.A specialcondensertransmitter was
constructed to make these measurements. The diameter of the trans-
mitter wasabout three-quartersof an inch (2 cm.), and the transmitter
was mountedon the end of a three-eighthsinch (1 cm.) steel tube. It
was therefore small in comparisonwith the wave-lengthsof the sound
at the frequenciesmeasured.Changein its locationproducedno notice-
able effect on the output of another transmitter mountednear it, and
the generalconsistency of the resultsobtainedtend to substantiatethe
measurements.

,5

\2

P•,^T•, III. Relativeamplitudeand phaseof pressurewithin conicalhorn at 800 c.p.s.

Diameter of mouth of horn 76 cm.
Length of horn 183 cm.

The investigation was limited to the case of infinitesimal waves.

Therefore no information was obtained relative to the assumptionsand
approximationsof the classicaltheory of soundas they have beenout-
lined above.However, the investigationdid give considerableinforma-
tion relative to the shapeof the advancingwave-front,the distribution
of energy,the reactionat the mouth, and the nature of the standing
wave systemwithin the horns.Plots of someof the resultsare shown
in the accompanyingplates.
The pressureof whichthe amplitudeand phaseare shownis the sum
of the pressuresof the initial and reflectedwavesexistingwithin the
horns. It was found that the pattern existingcould be approximated
very closelyby assumingthat the major portionof the reflectionat the

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 1932] WILLIAM M. HALL 561

mouth took place at an annular ring around the periphery. It will be

seenthat the effect is more pronouncedin the conical horn that in the
exponential, as a result of the greater discontinuity existing at the
mouth of the former.
The reactionat the mouth of a horn is frequently approximatedby
calculatingthe averagereactionon a vibrating rigid piston of the same
sizeas the mouth of the horn. If, instead, the reactionon eachpoint of
the pistonbe calculated,the impedanceoffered by the external medium
will be found to producereflectionsas above assumed.
Various points mentioned above in the discussionof the present
horn theory are illustrated in the plates. The more nearly flat wave-front
at the mouth of the conicalhorn, resultingin the increasedeffect of the
discontinuity at the mouth and in turn the more intense reflections
within the horn may be noted. The exceptionallyhigh phasevelocity
in the exponentialhorn at low frequency and the uniformity of the
distributionof the energyin the throat of the horns are apparent. To
this extent the presenttheory is substantiated.
A numberof conclusions relative to the presenthorn theory may be
drawn from the above. First, the limitation of the classicalequations
initially used must be recognized.The possibility of amplitude distor-
tion resultingfrom the non-linearity of the medium and the departure
of an elementof the medium from its undisturbedpositionmust not be
overlooked.Second,the fact must be recognizedthat Webster'stheory
givesno indication of the shapeof the wave-front within the horn, the
effectof this shapeon the radiation external to the horn, or the possi-
bility of transversevibrations within the horn. In comparingthe be-
haviour of various hornsthesefactors shouldnot be ignored.
The precedingdiscussionhas dealt with practically ideal theoretical
cases. The effects of vibrations and losses in the horn walls and of in-
ternal reflectionsin other than straight horns are matters about which
there is practically no knowledgeother than empiricalat the present
time.
The impossibilityof verifyingmoreexacttheoriesexperimentallyhas
heretoforejustified the use of the presenthorn theory. However, this
restriction is rapidly being removed,and it is to be expectedthat re-
finementsin the theory will be made to keep pace with the experi-
mental technique.
In closing,the author wishesto expresshis indebtednessto Professor
Fay for thesuggestion
andsupervision
of the aboveinvestigation,

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