Leisure/Loisir

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Adolescents’ self-exploration in leisure experience

Atara Sivan , Vicky Chiu Wan Tam , Gertrude Po Kwan Siu & Robert A.
Stebbins

To cite this article: Atara Sivan , Vicky Chiu Wan Tam , Gertrude Po Kwan Siu & Robert A.
Stebbins (2020) Adolescents’ self-exploration in leisure experience, Leisure/Loisir, 44:4, 441-468,
DOI: 10.1080/14927713.2020.1815561

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14927713.2020.1815561

Published online: 18 Sep 2020.

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LEISURE/LOISIR
2020, VOL. 44, NO. 4, 441–468
https://doi.org/10.1080/14927713.2020.1815561

Adolescents’ self-exploration in leisure experience

Atara Sivan a, Vicky Chiu Wan Tama, Gertrude Po Kwan Siua
and Robert A. Stebbinsb
a
Department of Sociology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China; bDepartment of
Sociology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This phenomenological study examined the ways in which Received December 2018
self-exploration manifested in Hong Kong adolescents’ leisure Accepted January 2020
experiences. Semi-structured in-depth interviews were con­ KEYWORDS
ducted with 75 secondary school students on the choice of Adolescents; self exploration;
and engagement in their most important and interesting Hong Kong;
leisure activities. Seven themes emerged from data analysis phenomenology; leisure
that formed the essences of the adolescents’ leisure experi­ experience
ences: investment, positive affect, negative affect, obstacles to
MOTS-CLEFS
activity pursuit, recognition of own character, personal gains,
adolescents; auto–
and desires. These themes revealed adolescents’ self- exploration; Hong Kong;
exploration, which is an ongoing dynamic exploration process phénoménologie;
comprising constant appraisal, self-discovery and self- expérience de loisirsjeunes
construction embedded in students’ social context and driven touristes
by their interests, needs, beliefs, and potentials. The study
demonstrated the developmental significance of adolescents’
engagement in activities of personal interest and importance.
Through a contextualized investigation on leisure experiences
and reflections among Hong Kong teenagers, this study also
added to the knowledge of leisure pursuit and meaning-
making in non-Western contexts.
RÉSUMÉ
Cette étude phénoménologique étudie les diverses manifes­
tations de l’auto–exploration dans les expériences de loisirs
des adolescents de Hong Kong. Des entretiens semi–
structurés et approfondis ont été menés auprès 75 élèves du
secondaire ; ceux–ci portaient sur les notions de sélection et
d’engagement par rapport aux activités de loisirs qu’ils
considéraient comme les plus importantes et intéressantes.
Sept thèmes ont émergé de l’analyse des données qui ont
constitué la substance des expériences de loisirs des adoles­
cents : investissement, affect positif, affect négatif, obstacles à
la poursuite de l’activité, reconnaissance de son propre
caractère, gains personnels et dèsirs. Ces thèmes ont révélé
l’auto–exploration adolescente, qui s’avère être un processus
d’exploration dynamique continu intégrant une évaluation
constante, une découverte de soi et une auto–construction
au contexte social des élèves et motivées par leurs intérêts,

CONTACT Atara Sivan atarasiv@hkbu.edu.hk Department of Education Studies, Hong Kong Baptist
University, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
© 2020 Canadian Association for Leisure Studies / Association canadienne d’études en loisir
442 A. SIVAN ET AL.

leurs besoins, leurs croyances et leurs potentiels. L’étude a

démontré l’importance de l’engagement des adolescents
dans des activités d’intérêt et d’importance personnels pour
le développement. Grâce à une enquête contextualisée sur les
expériences de loisirs et les réflexions des adolescents de
Hong Kong, cette étude a également renforcé les connaissan­
ces sur la recherche de loisirs et la recherche de signification
dans des milieux non occidentaux.

This study examines the manifestation of self-exploration in Hong Kong

adolescents’ leisure experiences. Adopting a phenomenological approach,
the study aims to illuminate the process of self-exploration by examining
secondary school students’ subjective perceptions and reflections on their
experiences of engaging in their most important and interesting leisure
pursuit. This culture-based investigation is underpinned by the conceptua­
lization of leisure as a context for youth development and draws from the
concepts of identity exploration and serious leisure.

Leisure experiences in socio-cultural contexts

Despite leisure being a universal human phenomenon, leisure experiences

are socially and culturally constructed (Iwasaki, 2007). Culture was found to
play a major role in shaping leisure (Sivan & Henderson, 2018) as well as in
facilitating the meaning-making of leisure (Iwasaki, 2007). Studies on ado­
lescents’ leisure in different contexts reveal that contextual constraints
rooted in cultural belief systems form leisure activity (Silbereisen, 2003).
Larson and Verma (1999), for example, found differences between Asian
and American adolescents in their types of leisure activities and the social
context in which the activities took place with Asian youngsters spending
more time with family and less with peers. These differences have been
attributed to collectivistic values and the importance of family cohesion as
a core element in Asian culture. Differences in leisure constraints were also
found between Chinese and Canadian higher education students with the
former being more intra- and interpersonally constrained than the latter
(Walker et al., 2007). Chinese young adults were more likely than their
Canadian counterparts to consider the need for autonomy, social support,
and role fulfilment in their leisure choice and participation. By highlighting
the differences between Asian and North American adolescents, researchers
have addressed the need to examine adolescent leisure across different
socio-cultural contexts (Caldwell, 2008; Verma & Larson, 2003). To counter
the dominance of Western perspectives in leisure research, calls have been
made in recent years to deepen cross-cultural investigations highlighting
 LEISURE/LOISIR 443

practices in non-Western countries (Roberts, 2010). Bringing forward the

emic perspective, Sivan (2010) has specifically raised the need for ‘reaching
out in an attempt to learn and understand [leisure] phenomena as they are,
rather than as they are perceived by outsiders’ (p. 179). The current study
responds to these recommendations by examining leisure among Chinese
students within the sociocultural context of Hong Kong.

Adolescents’ leisure within the Hong Kong context

In comparison to the volume of studies on adolescents’ schooling, the area

of leisure has received relatively little attention in Hong Kong. At the same
time, in view of the packed study schedule and academic expectations of
children and adolescents, recent years saw an increased concern for adoles­
cents’ need for leisure activities (Blundy, 2017; Cheng, 2012). Furthermore,
recommendations were made for provision of ‘social, mental, physical and
environmental recreation’ to youngsters for their healthy and productive
development (Yip et al., 2011).
Previous studies on leisure in Hong Kong provided a descriptive profile
of adolescents’ actual and desired leisure involvement highlighting the
prevalence of expressive and sedentary activities and the increase in screen-
and media-based activities (e.g. Sivan, 2000; Sivan et al., 2008, 2005). Studies
have also pointed out that the most popular reason for adolescents’ parti­
cipation in leisure activities is ‘killing time’ which relates to the phenom­
enon described in the local culture by the colloquial term ‘hea’ (Sivan, 2003,
2013). Most of the studies on youth leisure employed quantitative measures.
A recent study on activity choice of secondary school students indicated that
activities regarded as most important and interesting supported adolescents’
psychological and affiliation needs and could potentially impact their devel­
opment (Sivan et al., 2018). Recommendations were made to undertake
more investigations involving qualitative measures to portray adolescents’
meaning making of these activities.

Leisure as a context for youth development

Characterized by relative freedom, fewer social constraints compared with

other life domains, and self-determined and intrinsic motivation
(D. A. Kleiber et al., 2011; Iso-Ahola, 1999), leisure is identified as
a major context for youth development (Caldwell, 2008; Hunter &
Csikszentmihalyi, 2003). Leisure activities provide a wide range of learning
environments and opportunities for adolescents to exercise self-directed
behaviour, explore interests, develop skills and build competence
(Caldwell, 2005; Larson, 2000; Larson & Verma, 1999). Studies have
indicated that fundamental psychological needs for autonomy,
444 A. SIVAN ET AL.

competence and relatedness can be met through different leisure activities,

thus forming the basis for positive youth development (Mahoney et al.,
2005; Larson, 2001).
Examinations on developmental outcomes of participation in leisure
activities have focused on activity type and characteristics of activity
settings indicating the impact of both factors on adolescent development
(Eccles & Barber, 1999; Eccles & Gootmsn, 2002; Hansen et al., 2003).
Participation in prosocial activities, sports, performing arts and academic
clubs was related to increase in academic outcomes. Activities that pro­
vided safe environment and positive social norms related to increase in
motivation, self-esteem, problem-solving abilities and interpersonal skills
(Eccles & Gootmsn, 2002). Faith-based, service, community and voca­
tional activities were reported by adolescents as contexts for identity
reflection, prosocial norms and development of community links while
sports was identified as a context for self-knowledge, emotional regulation
and physical skills (Hansen et al., 2003).
Studies on adolescents’ intrapersonal experiences in different activity
settings (Coatsworth et al., 2005; Dworkin et al., 2003) demonstrated the
importance of gauging their subjective experiences for understanding devel­
opmental processes and the link between participation and outcomes espe­
cially in relation to identity development (Coatsworth et al., 2005; Dworkin
et al., 2003). The present study adopts the perspective that emphasizes
adolescent’ subjective experience.

Exploring the self in leisure participation

Leisure has been identified as a social space in which the individuals develop
their selves and form their identity (Kelly, 1983; Kleiber, 1999). The self is
a constantly developed process over time from social experiences and
activities (Mead, 1934) and identity is one of its core elements. The forma­
tion of identity – a person’s knowing and understanding of who he/she
(Erikson, 1994) involves connecting and identifying with people important
to the individual while preserving one’s own uniqueness (Kleiber, 1999).
Alternative perspective sees the self ‘implicated in the ongoing routines of
everyday life’ (Kuentzel, 2000, p. 91) including leisure, and leisure participa­
tion is motivated by the need to feel safe and comfortable in one’s everyday
living. Of relevance to our paper is the concept that leisure provides the
contexts for human development.
A core developmental task of adolescence is identity development during
which identity is constructed and re-constructed as an adaptive process
(Marcia, 1980). Exploration is at the heart of identity work in late adoles­
cence and emerging adulthood (Arnett, 2004; Erikson, 1968; Luyckx et al.,
2011; Marcia, 1980). Identity exploration and formation take place as
 LEISURE/LOISIR 445

adolescents try to integrate their intrinsic nature, such as aptitudes, talents,

and characteristics, with the- surrounding context (Erikson, 1968).
According to Waterman (1992, 1993), there is a relation between activity
individuals engage in and their identity formation, and identity develop­
ment occurs through self-discovery and self-construction (Waterman,
1984). Self-discovery entails the development of identity through experi­
mentation with different activities where people identify or discover activ­
ities that provide them with ‘personal expressiveness’ experiences
(Waterman, 1990, 1992, 2004). These experiences, which also include the
impression that this is what the person meant to do and a great fit between
the activity and the person’s potentials, interests and talents, are not man­
ifested in most daily tasks (Waterman, 1993). The process of identity
development through self-construction involves rational considerations of
various alternatives based on one’s own evaluative criteria including beliefs,
needs, interests and potentials and some external influences of surrounding
people, followed by an eventual selection of one or more of these alternatives
(Waterman, 1984). According to Schwartz (2002) self-construction relates
to the external environment while self-discovery addresses more one’s inner
world. Identity is formed when a person experiments with alternatives and
possibilities in the process based on some knowledge of the self and envir­
onment and seeks out personally meaningful activities for self-realization.
In adolescence, the process of self-discovery is prominent as youngsters
emerge from childhood shadowed by parental guidance and care to explore
the world outside the family and experiment with experiences that lead to
self-understanding and self-construction. In line with the self-discovery
model, it is through participation in personally salient identity-related
activities that the individual begins to recognize elements of his/her true
self (Waterman, 2004; Sharp et al., 2007). These ‘self-defining’ activities are
reported by participants as they identify activities that describe ‘who they
really are’ or ‘what they are really like as a person’ (Coatsworth et al., 2005,
p. 364). The choice of these activities relates to Bronfenbrenner’s (1979)
argument that activities with special meaning of personal importance would
have a more significant effect on their development (Sharp et al., 2007). Even
though exploration involves a process of activity participation (Erikson,
1968), its manifestation within such a process and especially in leisure
activity has been scarcely investigated. Previous studies have adopted quan­
titative measures to identify identity-related experiences in adolescents’ self-
defining activities (e.g. Coatsworth et al., 2006, 2005). Whereas these studies
have identified the type and variability of self-defining activities and the
certain developmental attributes related to identity development in this
engagement, they did not portray the process adolescents experienced
while engaging in these activities. For example, Dworkin et al. (2003)
examined adolescents’ growth experiences in activities they enjoyed and
446 A. SIVAN ET AL.

were ‘caught up in’ (p. 20), and found the manifestation of identity devel­
opment in trying new things, gaining self-knowledge and learning one’s
limits. However, their study focused more on the outcome than the process
adolescents have gone through. Furthermore, as noted by the researchers,
the focus group methodology used in their study might have inhibited some
participants from describing personal experiences. In our study, we utilized
in-depth individual interviews to investigate students’ self-exploration pro­
cess and employed a phenomenological approach to examine the develop­
mental processes teenagers go through in enacting leisure activities.

Serious leisure as a distinct context for self-exploration

The concept of serious leisure provides pointers for understanding the
process of self-exploration in adolescents. Serious leisure is defined as ‘the
systematic pursuit of an amateur, hobbyist, or volunteer core activity that is
highly substantial, interesting, and fulfilling and where, in the typical case,
participants find a career in acquiring and expressing a combination of its
special skills, knowledge, and experience’ (Stebbins, 1992, p. 3). It has been
identified with six characteristics: perseverance, leisure career, knowledge
and skills, durable personal and social benefits, personal and group iden­
tities, and unique ethos, all of which facilitate self-development (Stebbins,
1982). Studies conducted among adults (e.g. Elkington & Stebbins, 2014;
Gillespie et al., 2002; Heo et al., 2013; Kim et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2016) have
identified the qualities of serious leisure across a range of activities and
demonstrated an array of benefits that participants gained as a result of their
serious leisure pursuit. These include acquisition of skills, development of
a sense of achievement and enhanced self-confidence and self-esteem.
Participants also derived social benefits in term of interpersonal relation­
ships and sense of belonging (Kim & Heo, 2009) which shaped their
personal and social identity.
In contrast to the number of studies on adult participants, studies on
adolescent serious leisure are relatively uncommon. Spector (2007) who
identified the qualities of serious leisure in a group of adolescents indicated
the potential contribution of serious leisure engagement to the acquisition of
coping skills and the desire for lifelong learning. Derom and Taks (2011)
examined both adolescents’ and adults’ leisure experience at two types of
sporting events suggesting higher level of seriousness among those who
participated in international/major events. However, the study did not high­
light specific features of adolescent participants. Codina et al. (2017) studied
the role of serious and casual leisure activities in the construction of young
adult identities. Two recent studies on adolescents’ serious leisure were
conducted in Hong Kong. The first study by Siu (2013) centred on late
adolescents and young adults, demonstrating the various ways in which
 LEISURE/LOISIR 447

their engagement facilitated transition to adulthood. The second study by

Sivan et al. (2018) focused on adolescents’ choice of their most important and
interesting leisure activities, demonstrating the different degrees of serious­
ness in undertaking these activities. Recommendations were made to further
examine serious engagement across participants’ chosen activities. The pre­
sent study extends this investigation by focusing on this important quality of
leisure involvement and how it potentially supports the development of the
individual’s identity. We follow the recommendation by examining adoles­
cents’ self-exploration across a range of seriousness in their leisure pursuit. In
line with the recommendation that the best way to understand the experi­
ences of serious leisure participation is to study them through the eyes of the
participants (Stebbins, 2009) we adopt a phenomenological approach in this
investigation.
With the above background in mind, the present study aims to explore
the subjective experiences of adolescents in their pursuit of leisure activities
which they regard as most important and interesting. A phenomenology
approach is used to explore these experiences while focusing on self-
exploration.

Methods
The descriptive phenomenological method (Giorgi, 2009) is often used in
qualitative research to determine the essence of a phenomenon in the life­
world. This study adopted this phenomenological approach to illuminate
adolescents’ self-exploration in leisure participation by examining their
subjective perceptions and reflections on leisure experiences. The use of
phenomenological design was underpinned by the need to uncover the
meaning-making process of adolescents’ experiences (Kvale & Brinkmann,
2009). The phenomenological approach was implemented through semi-
structured individual interviews that explored participants’ experiences,
perceptions, and reflections.

Participants

Participants of the study were drawn from a pool of 1119 secondary school
students from 10 schools representing all three academic banding levels1
and all three main geographical regions of Hong Kong. We asked the pool of
students to nominate their most important and interesting leisure activity
and to complete a short questionnaire about the chosen activity and demo­
graphic background. The Serious Leisure Inventory and Measure (SLIM)
Short Form (Gould et al., 2011, 2008) was also used to assess the degree of
seriousness in respondents’ engagement in their most important and inter­
esting leisure activity (Sivan et al., 2017, 2018). Respondents indicated the
448 A. SIVAN ET AL.

level of agreement with each item on a 9-point Likert scale from Strongly
Disagree to Strongly Agree. We used purposeful sampling to come up with
the sample of 75 Form Four and Form Five students to take part in
individual interviews. Sampling criteria included gender, type of most
important and interesting leisure activity, reason for activity choice, current
participation, and level of seriousness in activity involvement. Among the 75
participants selected, the mean age was 16.97 years, SD = 1.18. There were
54.7% males (n = 41) and 45.3% females (n = 34). In terms of school
banding, 26 were in Band 1 (34.7%), 24 in Band 2 (32%), and 25 in Band
3 (33.3%). The majority of participants (73.3%) had engaged in their chosen
leisure activity between one to 8 years and the vast majority (90.7%) engaged
in the activity at the time of the interview. Among the participants, the SLIM
scores ranged from 3.94 to 8.78.

Interviews

Individual face-to-face in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted

by a member of the research team in the participants’ native tongue of
Chinese to shed light on their leisure experiences and meaning-making of
these experiences. Key interview questions are: Can you tell me any parti­
cular things, people, or events leading up to your involvement in the activity?
What are those unforgettable happenings and how do you feel about them?
Do you think there is any difference between your leisure activity and your
everyday routines such as going to school? How do you feel about such
similarities and differences? Have you discovered anything new about yourself
during the course of your activity participation? What are the gains and losses
resulted from activity pursuit, and how do you feel about them?

Analysis
The interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and translated into
English. Coding and theme analysis were performed in line with the phe­
nomenological approach (Giorgi, 2009). The steps included identifying
meaningful chunks in the transcripts, interpreting the data using procedures
that involved data conceptualization and reduction, elaborating ideas in
terms of their properties and dimensions, and relating ideas to identified
themes of the phenomenon under study. The analysis was supported with
the qualitative data analysis software NVivo 10 which helped to map out
fully the richness and complexity of the participants’ leisure experiences.
A total of 65 initial codes were identified and discussed among the research
team members. These initial codes were subsequently grouped into 17
tentative themes and condensed to seven core themes of leisure experiences
that formed the essences of participants’ self-exploration.
 LEISURE/LOISIR 449

Findings
Findings of this study are presented in two parts. The first part describes the
seven emerging themes of students’ leisure experiences with illustrative
interview excerpts. In the second part the self-exploration phenomenon is
deduced from the themes of students’ experiences.

Students’ leisure experiences

Seven themes emerged from the data analysis. These are: investment, posi­
tive affect, negative affect, obstacles to activity pursuit, recognition of own
character, personal gains, and desires. They formed the essences of the
interviewees’ leisure experience in pursuing those activities they regarded
as most important and interesting. The seven themes are presented in
sequential order with regard to the interviewees’ leisure engagement pro­
cess, though some phenomena, such as positive and negative affect, or
obstacles to activity pursuit, existed concurrently.

Investment
Investment refers to interviewees’ investing time, effort or money in their
chosen activities, demonstrating that these activities were meaningful to
them. Students’ accounts showed their dedication to and enthusiasm for
activity pursuit. They emphasized that ‘much time’ was spent on pursuing
their leisure activities and they engaged themselves in their chosen activities
whenever they were free. A student practising martial arts even claimed to
have the activity ‘occupying half of his life’.
The youngsters made an effort in their pursuit to persevere, practice,
search information, think, attend training sessions or reflect on past perfor­
mance, with a view to making improvements, accomplishing tasks or win­
ning competitions. Effort was also made to generate money or resources and
to create opportunities for pursuing their most important and interesting
activities. All these reasons highlighted the interviewees’ determination and
confidence. The following are two typical examples:
Even though I fail I keep trying hard. For example, I felt thoroughly frustrated when
I couldn’t pass the ball to my teammates. But later, I trained myself hardly that I wish
I won’t make the same mistake again in future. (How do you train yourself?)2 I go for
the training a lot. (Do you have training by yourself?) I will do more in the training
course. (Pay more effort.) Yes. I will pay more effort and focus more. (006-4B23, 196,
football)3

Yes, there should be some difficulties – such as yesterday’s class, I learnt words with
different spellings when they are used with I or we or they . . . (You mean conjugation?)
Yes, I have to memorize many things. I was suddenly not willing to memorize
those . . . but I know there should be some formulae or theories. Once I can follow
450 A. SIVAN ET AL.

the formulae, I can memorize the basic theories. But nothing affects my motivation.
(002-4B27, 174, learning Spanish)

In order to avoid feeling guilty for attending an idol’s performance,

a student who chose being groupie as her most important and interesting
activity made a great effort to do revision and get prepared for assignments
well beforehand. She and a net-surfer made an effort to take up part-time
jobs to earn money so that they could spend it on their favourite activity
pursuit.

Positive affect
Adolescents experienced pleasant emotions while engaging in their chosen
activities. Their expressed good feelings fell into the following categories in
descending order of frequency of citation: satisfaction, happiness, relaxa­
tion, enjoyment, interest, comfort, excitement, touching moments, feeling
good, getting rid of unpleasant emotions, having fun and laughter, and
feeling strong.
The interviewees provided a wide range of reasons for pleasant feelings
attached to their activity pursuit. Those doing the activities alone enjoyed
and cherished the solitary activities that helped them relax and be them­
selves. Those who indulged in their chosen activities felt totally free from
worries and every day duties. A sense of pride and achievement was
developed by students who were pleased about their own performance
and/or could get prizes for it. Attraction of the activity and a real passion
for it motivated interviewees to carry on with their pursuit. A student who
engaged in reading was deeply moved finding love in a story authentic and
unique, and another reader found it fantastic to immerse into fictional
characters and to undertake their roles. A zither-player was intensely
interested in the activity, and found herself confident, motivated, and
capable of playing the instrument well. A student engaging in animal
volunteering felt that she was making contributions to the society whereas
a groupie expressed that life was complete while immersing herself in the
idols’ show.
Positive affect sometimes arose from teenagers’ interaction with people
they encountered while pursuing their leisure activities. These people
included teammates, co-participants, trainers/instructors/teachers, and par­
ents. The youngsters valued the support for activity participation rendered
to them by these people, especially their parents. As revealed in their
accounts, an empathetic trainer or instructor motivated learners to do
better, keep the passion, or gradually change in a desirable direction.
Below is such a description of an interviewee engaging in clip-filming
competitions:
 LEISURE/LOISIR 451

[The trainer] discovered that I am able. At first, I was like other Hong Kong students,
having low self-esteem and looking down on myself, not believing in myself. And
because of him/her, thanks to him/her, I changed from being a low-self-esteem
person, having poor grades, to slowly improving, scoring from 30 marks to 40, and
then to 50. Knowing that I am able, why not give it a try? (008-5A23, 139, clip-filming
competition)

Working with teammates towards the same goal was deemed most attractive
by interviewees who also enjoyed the shared feelings, effort, and contribu­
tions, despite some occasional conflicts. Sharing personal affairs with co-
participants or teammates made interviewees feel authentic and free, so they
liked the activity more. Simply getting together with friends and talking
about things other than studies were also regarded as pleasurable activities.
As time went by, a student playing computer-game even developed a sense
of satisfaction when she witnessed positive changes of other game players as
a result of reciprocal influences:
I witness the change of their characters. I see them changed from being grumpy and
critical to being a lot more optimistic. It is fantastic indeed to have influenced one
another while we play together. I develop a great sense of satisfaction. (008-4A26, 134,
playing computer games)

There were also some other people who brought about positive affect to
the interviewees. For example, a student whose chosen activity was run­
ning said that he felt warm with ordinary morning greetings from
passerby.

Negative affect
Apart from feeling good with activity pursuit, interviewees also experienced
unpleasant emotions, though less often reported than pleasant moments.
They mentioned feelings of anxiety, defeat, frustration, and sadness and
elaborated on their underlying reasons.
Adolescents felt bad mainly when they found that they were not doing
well in the activity. They considered their performance was not up to
standard or they failed in some competitions or examinations. The follow­
ing are some examples:
We didn’t have enough time to practice before the competition. We finished our
examination in October, and the competition was in February. We would not have
practices during the examination period. Our skills might become rusty, and we
needed time to get us back. We might not be able to learn all the skills before the
competition, and we felt anxious. (002-5C05, 37, dancing)

It’s like I try so hard, so many times, that I still can’t draw what I want to; then I will
feel a bit defeated. (002-4C06, 104, drawing)

I sometimes may feel not worthwhile – when I spend lots of time and effort, but I fail
in the mission and cannot get the badges. (002-5A17, 91, Boys’ Brigade)
452 A. SIVAN ET AL.

It is sure that you will feel sad if you lose in the competition because you practised for
a long time. You feel frustrated when you cannot win. (003-4B11, 145, street dance)

Unpleasant feelings regarding activity pursuit also arose from the youngsters’
interaction with teammates, co-participants, trainers/instructors/teachers,
and parents. These unpleasant feelings were largely performance-related.
Interviewees showed negative affect when they were unhappy about unin­
volved teammates. Below is an example of such a phenomenon:

A large portion of teammates do not really enjoy cheerleading, and they don’t do the
moves well. They always give a lot of excuses why they cannot attend, but they never
quit the team. I think that if they do not want to play, they should better quit. I don’t
enjoy spending time with them. (005-4B13, 120, cheering team)

Strict instructors who often reprimanded interviewees deterred them from

activity participation. A teacher’s unorthodox way of teaching annoyed
a student who engaged in water-painting. An environment ambassador
felt inferior after being compared with others by the school teachers and
was shocked to realize that the teachers did not support their energy-saving
project in the school premises. A student engaging in athletics felt intense
pressure by parents’ attendance at each and every one of his competitions.

Obstacles to activity pursuit

An obstacle means a condition that makes activity pursuit difficult. Such
conditions resulted mostly from parental concern for their children’s studies
and/or health. As revealed by the teenagers, in their parents’ view studies
should take precedence over any other activities. Interviewees were mainly
advised to study hard and achieve better grades. Parents also regarded health
and safety of their children important. A football-player was asked not to get
involved in high-risk ballgame while a runner was persuaded not to run
anymore after getting injured. A student engaged in reading was advised
not to read that much as his eyes would suffer while parents of a female
taekwondo-player urged her to learn something more girly.
Interviewees gave up their leisure, at least temporarily, whenever there
were conflicts concerning use of time and/or energy. This indicates the
interviewees’ tendency to comply with parental expectations. They would
sacrifice their leisure pursuits for something important as defined by their
parents or by the society in general. The following are some illustrative
examples:

After this inter-school competition, maybe I have to consider my studies first, as

academic performance is much more important. I will tell my coach about trimming
my practice time from 3 training days per week down to 1 or 2 days only. Training
should as well not be too tiring as I need to focus my energy more on my revision.
(004-11D25, 91, athletics)
 LEISURE/LOISIR 453

I spend at least six to seven hours in the school each day and there is a lot of
homework after school. If I spend time on martial arts, I may not have enough time
to cope with my studies. I find it really hard to balance the time. (008-4A02, 89,
martial arts)

I am now in the final year and need to get prepared for the DSE [Diploma of
Secondary Education public examination] which is coming closer. I get nervous
when I speculate about my results. I hope to prepare myself better for the exam­
inations and will drop celebrity-following for the time-being. (002-4A12, 464,
groupies)

Recognition of own character

Students developed new knowledge about themselves after pursuing their
chosen activities for quite some time, i.e. engaging in certain skills or tasks
repeatedly, and interacting with people such as teammates, co-participants
and trainers/instructors/teachers. The knowledge comprised realization of
one’s personal qualities and inadequacies as well as abilities and inabilities.
Interviewees’ descriptions of the gained knowledge indicated that they
expanded their self-awareness with activity engagement.
Students expressed recognition of their personal qualities, which included
being approachable, easy-going, getting along with others, persevering,
making effort and finding alternatives for problem-solving. Examples are
as follows:

I am very talkative and can mix well with new friends easily. Some junior students
regard me as approachable and they come and chat with me when we meet during
breaks and recesses. (001-5E01, 131, Girl Guide)

I am quite a tough person. When I lag behind, I will try my best to catch up. (006-
5A08, 147, basketball)

A student who chose cosplay (costume play) as his most important and
interesting activity found himself a fast learner, while the one who chose
being a Boy Scout as his activity called himself an independent worker.
Becoming aware of their inadequacies after engagement in their pursuits
for some time was illustrated in students’ accounts across different activities.
A Girl Guide admitted that she was not attentive enough and a net-surfer
was inclined to evade from difficult situations. A student engaging in
playing computer-game found himself alienated and passive and
a teenager who participated in a student union claimed to have limited
leadership skill. An Erhu-player in a Chinese orchestra found himself
incapable of following the conductor attentively.
Physical abilities and/or inabilities were also noted by the adolescents.
A student who played badminton realized that he could handle racket well
with either hand, yet he was weak in double-playing and lacked stamina. An
adolescent playing Kung Fu shared his inability to jump high which affected
454 A. SIVAN ET AL.

his performance of certain forms in martial arts while a dart-player had

a problem in preventing his hand from shaking. Two students who chose
cycling and football as their leisure pursuits, respectively, claimed to have
poor limb coordination.

Personal gains
Personal gains were reported with activity engagement when interviewees
found themselves changing positively or attaining something they cher­
ished. They got such an impression when comparing their present and
past selves. Changes and attainments were found in the students’ affective,
behavioural, cognitive, social and physical domains.
Changes and attainments in the affective domain were manifested in
interviewees’ move towards a more positive way of emotional coping in
certain situations. They were less impulsive and remained tolerant and
patient when faced with difficulties and criticism. They were also able to
persevere with activity pursuit despite setbacks. As a result of activity engage­
ment, these young people also gained confidence. Here are some examples:
People who practice martial arts are not afraid of criticism. They accept readily
comments from others in order to do better. Thus, I also feel more comfortable to
tell others about their mistakes. (003-3B18, 167, martial arts)

I felt quite nervous and shaky in the past whenever having to give a talk to others. As
I have more experiences in public-speaking after joining the student union, I am now
more confident and no longer afraid to face a group of people. (002-4C13, 92, student
union)

Through ice-skating, I have learnt that there would always be some obstacles, and in
order to succeed, it depends on your willingness to try and persevere. (011-4D22, 238,
ice skating)

Behavioural changes were mostly skill-specific. For example, an interviewee

who chose playing zither found herself more skillful in mastering the
instrument while another one gained improved makeup skills after engaging
in cosplay. Those who were fond of reading wrote much better and became
more descriptive in their narratives and could read faster. With activity
engagement, interviewees also developed some socially desirable beha­
viours, like improved communication skills.
Personal gains in the cognitive aspect were voluminous and mostly
centred on knowledge gained about the chosen activity. For example,
a youngster who played the piano acquired a lot of music theories and
thoughts. A TV-watcher picked up knowledge about health and musical
instruments from different programmes while the health-care course pur­
suer was full of ideas concerning how hospitalized patients should be taken
care of. Those who were fond of reading and internet-surfing said that
reading stories about people and places broadened their horizon and
 LEISURE/LOISIR 455

perspectives resulting in changing their ways of thinking about themselves,

others, places, and life in general. Those that read books even assimilated
diverse situations such as romance and hardship encountered by the book
characters and mentally rehearsed coping with hypothetical situations in
real life.
Students indicated changing of mindset as a result of pursuit of their
chosen activity. They saw the importance of putting reasonable expectation
on themselves, making effort, accepting failure and persevering in order to
reap. The following are some examples:
I learn that we should not give up when we encounter difficulties and failures. (I get
your point. Do you mean playing online game has inspired you to . . .) I should make
effort in finding ways to overcome obstacles and not to give up. (008-4A26, 13, playing
computer games)

Actually, running allows me to accept upsets more easily. As I found my performance

declining, actually I had stopped running for a year in between. When I resumed
practice, I was unable to reach the original level. At first, I was unhappy, and thinking
of quitting to focus on my studies. But I realized that actually I liked running and
didn’t want to give up. I suppose that I am more able to accept the fact that I may lose
in competitions. I realize that I can try hard to reach my previous level again. This in-
between process allowed me to develop my coping mechanism so that I can accept
failures and handle obstacles much better. (004-11S28, 79, running)

There were many accounts regarding social gains. Interviewees were happy
to get chances to make friends (including online friends) and even best
friends through activity participation. They described memorable moments
of sharing the fun of reading, inner feelings and things other than studies,
having meals and celebrating birthday together with these friends. Those
who were members of a team talked about forming closer relationship with
teammates and being open with one another as a result of frequent contact.
Others felt good to have chances to meet people of different backgrounds.
One student even confessed that she had learnt not to stereotype people,
which was her habit prior to activity pursuit. Currently, she took the
initiative to understand others and make friends with them.

Desires
As a result of activity engagement, interviewees developed aspirations for
specific attainment or achievement. Their desires were mostly activity-
related. The teenagers were motivated to keep their leisure activity, develop
further knowledge, skills and quality, do better, win prizes or reach a higher
level of achievement in the areas of their leisure pursuits. The following are
some examples of such desires:
Water paintings usually wow people with its beauty, and I want to achieve that
impression. (002-4C06, 108, drawing)
456 A. SIVAN ET AL.

I hope we can do our best so that we will have no regret. We aim to perform to our
best on the stage. (002-5C05, 37, dancing)

I long for winning the champion whenever I take part in a competition. (003-3B18, 73,
martial arts)

I heard that one would be invited to join the Hong Kong team if one could be the top
three in the black-belt competition. I will definitely try doing that if I am one of the
top three. Giving it a try is not bad at all. I will consider such possible future direction.
(007-5C27, 247, taekwondo)

The youngsters revealed desires to engage in activity-related career, such as

becoming a professional player, or trainer/teacher in the field. Examples are as
follows:
I am interested in multi-media production. If possible, I would like to try out film-
production. If not, I may join some studios and film some advertisements. (008-5A23,
53, clip filming competition)

I dream to become a nurse in the future. (006-5A11, 19, health care course)

I really love baking cakes. If I can live on that, cake-baking will be my career. (007-
5C33, 147, DIY)

To achieve the career goal, some interviewees aspired to continue their

leisure pursuit through university studies and to pass down their knowledge
and skills to the younger generations. A student engaging in athletics
wanted to choose physiotherapy as his future studies so that he could
enhance his athletic leisure engagement while one that played taekwondo
liked to help trainees understand that learning taekwondo was fun.
A youngster who chose to be an environment ambassador wished to apply
what he had learnt from the Green Team in his future career.
The abovementioned seven themes established the essences of adoles­
cents’ experience of engaging in their most important and interesting leisure
activities. It was from these seven themes that adolescents’ self-exploration
was explored and discussed in the next section.

The phenomenon of adolescent self-exploration in leisure experience

The phenomenon of self-exploration as manifested in students’ leisure

experiences is presented in Figure 1. The figure portrays a process compris­
ing constant appraisal, self-discovery and self-construction embedded in
students’ social context and driven by their interests, needs, beliefs, and
potentials. The ball in the figure represents an adolescent and the three
wings denote the ongoing dynamic exploration processes.
Regarding the activity as their most important and interesting pursuit,
students invested time, energy and effort (investment) in it. Motivation to
 LEISURE/LOISIR 457

do their best in their chosen activity was underpinned by interest that

greatly affected the intensity and direction of their engagement. Apart
from interest, both psychological and cognitive factors affected activity
choice and involvement. The psychological factors included basic needs
fulfilment and expression of one’s talents and potentials, and the cognitive
factors consisted of internalized cultural beliefs. In their accounts, students
appraised their current leisure participation and experience while making
references to their interests, needs, beliefs, and potentials. They weighed the
pros and cons of activity participation as counterbalance to the time and
energy spent, effort made, and burden shouldered in their studies which was
their major concern. They also raised concerns about interpersonal relation­
ships such as cherished friendship or conflicts with co-participants.
Students’ appraisals of their activity participation resulted in positive and
negative affect to which they reacted in various ways. Some decided to excel
or pursue further their chosen leisure while others considered modifying,
quitting or giving up their activity participation.
While appraising their current leisure engagement, students recalled why
and how they came to their present situations and elaborated on external
factors affecting their choices and involvement (obstacles to activity pur­
suit). These factors were largely family- or school-related and mostly tug of

Figure 1. Adolescent Self-exploration in Leisure Experience

458 A. SIVAN ET AL.

war over time spent between studies and leisure pursuits. The major deter­
rent to activity pursuit was students’ tendency to comply with parental
wishes. They internalized their parents’ priority on academic studies to
achieve better grades hoping to move up the social ladder in Hong Kong
society. Students, therefore, sacrificed their leisure pursuit for school work
readily and put aside leisure whenever there were conflicts concerning the
use of time and energy. The three themes of positive affect, negative affect
and obstacle to activity pursuit were present-oriented involving considera­
tion of leisure choice and involvement leading to some decision-making.
In addition to the present-oriented themes, there were three future-
oriented themes indicating long-term planning. Despite the existence of
some deterrents, students found their activity pursuit rewarding and worthy
of investment. Their leisure experience had expanded their self-awareness
(recognition of own character), resulting in fulfilment of psychological,
cognitive, and social needs. They felt better about themselves since they
acquired competence, expressed talents, expanded knowledge and skills,
developed personal attributes and enlarged social network. Furthermore,
students applied their learnt knowledge and skills and exercised the
acquired personal qualities in other life facets including studies and family
and friends (personal gains). Becoming aware of how they came to the
present being and the contribution of past leisure experiences to valuable
meanings, students realized that activity pursuit was inextricable linked to
their own transformation. On the whole, students liked their current selves
which resulted from activity pursuit and developed desires to pursue related
goals and engage in some similar studies or jobs (desires). This fit between
personal identity and the environment influenced students’ orientation and
motivation to engage in further exploratory work through leisure, making
the exploration a spiral rather than a linear process (Grotevant, 1987;
Luyckx et al., 2011).
As revealed in this study, students’ leisure engagement was motivated by
need fulfilment rather than by external circumstances or other instrumental
values. It is through such need-fulfilment processes that the youngsters
learned more about themselves. Both students’ present- and future-
oriented appraisals of leisure engagement served as solid foundation for
evaluating whether to continue, modify, or quit the current investment, or
to opt for other available alternatives based on their interests, potentials,
needs, and beliefs. The appraisal and evaluation processes were manifested
in seeking and processing information related to themselves through leisure
engagement. As time went by, students derived meanings that were relevant
and integrative to them (Flum & Kaplan, 2006).
While students were engaging in the aforesaid information seeking and
processing, exploration in the form of self-discovery and self-construction as
proposed by Waterman (1984, 1993) was evident. Personal expressiveness
 LEISURE/LOISIR 459

involves: feelings of intense interest (investment and positive affect); feelings

that ‘this is who I am’ (recognition of own character) and ‘this is what I meant
to do’ (gains and desires); and a belief that the activity fits well with one’s
potentials, interests, and talents (positive affect, recognition of own character,
gains, and desires) [self-discovery]. Self-construction was manifested in ado­
lescents’ consideration of various alternatives while rationally considering
their beliefs, needs, interests and potentials as well as the voices of people
around them and eventually selecting one or more of these alternatives [self-
construction]. Both the discovery and constructivist approaches are consistent
with Erikson’s (1974) focus on the potential interplay between identity and
context in stimulating identity formation. The teenagers considered the
relative pros (positive affect and gains) and cons (negative affect and obstacles
to activity pursuit) of the chosen leisure pursuit while estimating the degree of
fit (positive affect, recognition of own character, gains, and desires).

Discussion & recommendations

By exploring the phenomenon of self-exploration in leisure experiences
among Hong Kong adolescents, our study shed light on a significant process
that can contribute to youth development. It demonstrated the importance
of leisure as a context for personal growth and especially through engage­
ment in activities regarded as most important and interesting. The study
further brought to light the leisure experiences of youngsters in Hong Kong
and their reflections on identity and surrounding context and thus added to
the knowledge of leisure pursuit and meaning-making in non-Western
contexts.
The process of self-exploration that was explored in the present study
involved characteristics that align with the six distinctive qualities of serious
leisure (Stebbins, 2007/2015). The youngsters’ accounts demonstrated per­
severance and the need to endure challenges in undertaking their leisure
pursuit. They invested effort in their activity which resulted in increased
knowledge, acquisition of skills and a wide range of personal and social
benefits. Participants also developed desires to do better in their activity and
to continue pursuing it as part of their future career, demonstrating the
development of certain identity with their chosen leisure pursuit. Our
findings thus give empirical support to the developmental trajectory of
leisure engagement. Serious leisure involvement commences in teenage
and have potential significance for developmental outcomes. Through par­
ticipation in leisure activities that were perceived as most important and
interesting, adolescents engaged in a significant process which enhanced
self-awareness and understanding, developed a range of transferable skills,
shaped the ability to relate to others, and built on their experience for future
growth.
460 A. SIVAN ET AL.

Our findings on adolescents’ self-exploration highlight the enhancement

of leisure participation and adolescent development in respect of four aspects,
namely interest and need-fulfilment as motivators for activity pursuit, whole
person involvement and its outcomes, constant appraisal of activity engage­
ment within a specific context, and leisure as the least restrictive environment
for unleashing potential. These four aspects are discussed below.

Interest and need-fulfilment as motivators for activity engagement

Students’ interest in leisure activity and the importance they assigned to it

played a significant role in triggering activity engagement. Interest is regarded
as a key example of positive emotions (Fredrickson, 1998) which yields
thought-action tendency for engagement in diverse dimensions of the living
world (Izard, 1991). Interest also impels growth-oriented behaviours such as
exploration, learning and creativity, increasing the likelihood for successful
adaptation and survival (Izard, 1991; Izard & Ackerman, 2000; Piaget, 1981).
Silvia and Kashdan (2009) found that initial momentary interest sometimes
can lead to lasting hobbies or passions, providing people with a renewable
source of engagement and meaning. Interested youngsters are reported to be
more optimistic and they look forward to the future with greater confidence,
enthusiasm and power (Hunter & Csikszentmihalyi, 2003).
In our study, we have shown that during engagement in their most
interesting activities, students experienced pleasant emotions deriving from
satisfaction of various psychological needs such as enjoyment, relaxation,
rescued from boredom, freedom, autonomy, self-actualization, competence
and self-esteem. Satisfaction of psychological needs during leisure activity has
been found to be positively associated with diminished negative feelings,
feeling at ease and secure and increased life satisfaction (Kim et al., 2015;
Leversen et al., 2012; Newman et al., 2014; Sinai et al., 2012). Satisfaction of
their needs and its related benefits may have served as a perpetuating factor
for students to continue engaging in their chosen leisure pursuit. Needs
fulfilment is also influenced by sociocultural norms, values and mores
which derive from an ongoing interaction between people and their environ­
ment (Glasser, 1998; Mottern, 2008). Such interaction was found among
Hong Kong students in this study as reflected in their descriptions of the
role that parents, teachers and peers played in their activity engagement.

Whole person involvement and its outcomes

While fulfilling their needs through leisure, students became more aware of
their own effect, behaviour and cognition and they also acknowledged changes
in these three domains. The process of need fulfilment mobilizes a person in
totality, involving his/her affect, behaviour, cognition and physiological
 LEISURE/LOISIR 461

functioning (Gabriel & Matthews, 2011; Glasser, 1998). Affect was demon­
strated in students’ acknowledgement of their feelings upon fulfilment or un-
fulfilment of needs as a result of activity participation. Behaviour refers to
learning and improvement in skills which were mostly activity-specific, like
running and dancing skills, or social, communication and leadership skills.
Both learning and skill improvement were seen as gains of activity pursuit and
resulted in students’ behavioural changes. Cognition was illustrated in stu­
dents’ acknowledgement of knowledge expansion and acquisition of some
insights as a result of activity participation. This acknowledgement reflected
the existence of intense cognitive mechanisms of assimilation and accommo­
dation for understanding of identity and environment. Students came to
understand themselves much better while realizing their characteristics, lim­
itations and potentials and thus planned their path ahead for further need
fulfilment.

Constant appraisal of activity pursuit within own sociocultural context

Social environments are highlighted as important in adolescent develop­
ment (Deci & Ryan, 2008; Leversen et al., 2012; Raabe & Readdy, 2016). As
indicated in this study, apart from developing pleasant emotions that led to
continuing commitment, students also experienced negative emotions and
encountered obstacles imposed by peers, parents or instructors in their
leisure pursuit. A major deterrent to activity participation, at least tempora­
rily, was the students’ readiness to comply with parental wishes demanding
them to spend time and energy on their studies.
Compliance with parental demands is a phenomenon commonly found
in Chinese societies like Hong Kong where Confucian teaching and filial
piety prevail. Confucian societies are known to be collectivist in nature
prioritizing the integration of the individual into society. Filial piety places
an expectation on the young to respect the old and children are required to
obey their parents, treat them with reverence and make them feel comfor­
table (Asia-Pacific Institute of Aging Studies, 2013; Chow, 2006). Such
a value is at the very centre of personal, family and social existence and
constitutes the basic ideal against which any other form of self-image has to
be judged (Asia-Pacific Institute of Aging Studies, 2013; Chow & Lum, 2008;
Ting, 2009). It was found in our study that whenever there was tug of war
between rewarding and worthwhile outcomes of activity pursuit and com­
pliance with parental wishes, the latter won.

Leisure as the least restrictive environment for unleashing potential

In this study, students’ engagement in their most important and interesting
leisure activities served as vehicles for self-exploration. Unlike other facets of
462 A. SIVAN ET AL.

their lives and especially mandated activities such as school work, through
leisure engagement students could identify, sort through, and select alter­
natives based on their own needs rather than being constrained by external
circumstances. Leisure involvement was considered as a context in which
students experienced different activities, encountered novel ideas and
engaged in social interaction. Leisure activities provided opportunities for
self-direction and initiative while exercising free choice and independent
participation. In their leisure pursuit students could readily identify activ­
ities that provided a greater fit with their interests, needs and potentials.
Engagement in one’s most important and interesting leisure set the scene for
free and relevant information seeking and processing in relation to the self.
The phenomenon presented in this study is based on examination of
adolescents’ leisure experiences and reflections on leisure pursuit within the
local context of Hong Kong. The use of phenomenology has helped to
portray the self-exploration process and its contribution to their develop­
ment. It would be useful to undertake more studies of this nature across
different sociocultural contexts and examine the phenomenon among dis­
tinct groups of youth to provide a holistic picture of the role and impact of
the context on self-exploration in leisure.
Several practical recommendations can be made based on the results of
our study. To facilitate the process of self-exploration, it is essential to
provide adolescents with conditions that facilitate processing of self-
relevant information and its meaningful integration into their self.
Adolescents’ engagement in leisure activities that are of interest and for
need-fulfilment is an avenue for supporting such a process. Leisure educa­
tion for adolescents, parents and school teachers could raise awareness of
the potential benefits of engaging in meaningful leisure activities. While
a recent study on the role of Hong Kong schools in leisure education
revealed the existence of channels for raising awareness of the role and
resources of leisure (Sivan & Chan, 2012), more efforts could be made to
highlight the significance of youth engagement in activities they regard
important and interesting.
In Hong Kong, the guiding principle of education is the use of learner-
centred approach that ‘facilitates students to learn how to learn through . . .
to suit the needs and interests of students’ and ‘flexible use of learning time
and life-wide learning experiences’ are also emphasized (Curriculum
Development Council, 2015, p. 3). Endeavours are to be made for cultivat­
ing students’ learning interest, enhancing their capacity to collaborate and
innovate, and developing their creativity and problem-solving skills for
whole person development and lifelong learning. Apart from implementing
educational strategies for organized learning activities in formal school
setting, self-initiated and-directed leisure engagement portrayed in this
study can be considered as a parallel avenue for pursuing the ends of
 LEISURE/LOISIR 463

education. Youngsters of this study have been going through learner-

centred and life-wide experiences that suited their needs and interests.
They also reported the enhancement of life skills including problem-
solving and social interaction as outcomes of their activity engagement. It
would be useful if parents, educators, and youth workers work collabora­
tively on ways to reduce adult dominance and intervention in adolescents’
leisure and facilitate their recognition of their own interests and needs as
a basis for leisure choice.

Notes
1. In Hong Kong, secondary schools are banded at three levels according to academic
performance of students admitted into their Secondary 1 classes. Students in Band 1
schools have the highest academic performance, and Band 3 the lowest.
2. Remarks made by the interviewer are put in italics and bracketed within excerpts.
3. Interviewee code, excerpt code, and nominated activity are indicated inside bracket at
the end of each excerpt.

Acknowledgments
The work described in this paper was fully supported by a grant from the Research Grants
Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China (Project No. 12601115,
HKBU).

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding
This work was supported by the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region, China [12601115, HKBU].

ORCID
Atara Sivan http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7463-4207

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