Historic rammed earth structures in Spain, construction techniques and a preliminary

classification

Paul Jaquin1, Charles Augarde2 and Christopher Gerrard3

Conservation and repair of historic rammed earth sites should only be undertaken if there is a
good understanding of the consequences of any intervention technique. Until recently there
has been little interest in the characterisation of historic rammed earth construction, yet it is
only with this understanding that successful conservation strategies can be adopted.

A survey of around 60 historic rammed earth sites in Spain constructed between 967AD and
1837AD has recently been undertaken. While all the sites are built primarily in rammed earth,
the construction techniques and state of repair vary greatly. The high density of historic
rammed earth structures in the Iberian peninsula is likely due to the Muslim presence there
from the 8th century onwards. Initial expansion, a period of civil war and eventual defeat by
Christians led to the construction of a large number of fortifications, many constructed in
rammed earth. A famous example is the Alhambra at Granada, but there are hundreds of
smaller sites throughout Spain. By the end of the 15th century Christians had replaced
Muslims through most of Spain, but rammed earth continued to be used in both vernacular
and monumental architecture.

Examples of historic construction techniques are presented and common features of historic
rammed earth construction are identified. A classification is outlined and a clear development
of the rammed earth technique is observed.

Keywords; Rammed earth, historic construction, building techniques, failure

Introduction

Rammed earth is a simple construction technique based on compacting earth between

formwork to make a homogeneous mass wall. It has recently become popular in Australia,
the USA and other parts of the world because it is recognised as a sustainable building
material (Easton 2007). Few rammed earth practitioners however realise the full extent of
historic rammed earth construction and the varied techniques used in the past. A better
understanding of historic rammed earth construction techniques would undoubtedly lead to
improved modern rammed earth construction, and better conservation of historic sites. This
paper presents one of the first overviews rammed earth construction during medieval and later

1
Paul Jaquin, School of Engineering, University of Durham, UK, p.a.jaquin@durham.ac.uk

2
Charles Augarde, School of Engineering, University of Durham, UK, charles.augarde@durham.ac.uk

3
Christopher Gerrard, Department of Archaeology, University of Durham, UK, c.m.gerrard@durham.ac.uk
historic periods. It seeks to identify characteristics by which different types of rammed earth
construction can be recognised, in order to provide a framework by which different rammed
earth buildings can be compared.

Rope fastening
together vertical
timbers

Compaction in layers
Direction of movement
Stones placed above holes

Lift Formwork side

Vertical timber
Horizontal timber

Brick placed at the face of the wall

Distinctive putlog hole

Figure 1 Features of typical historic rammed earth construction

To construct a rammed earth wall, a formwork box is constructed using two parallel timber
sides, supported on two or more horizontal timbers. Vertical timbers are then placed through
holes in the ends of the horizontal timbers thereby restraining the formwork. These vertical
timbers are connected at the top using rope, forming an open box. Soil is taken from the
ground and if necessary sieved to remove larger particles. Additives such as straw or lime
may be mixed into the soil, which is then dropped into the formwork in layers, usually around
150mm high. The layer is then compacted using a heavy rammer. Upon compaction of one
layer, another layer of earth is placed in the formwork and the process repeated until the
formwork is full. The formwork is then removed and placed on the next set of horizontal
timbers where the process is repeated. Once the formwork has been moved on, the horizontal
timbers are removed from the wall leaving characteristic holes usually called putlog
(mechinales in Spanish) holes by architectural historians. Upon completion of one horizontal
level the formwork is moved vertically, the mass of standing wall being known as a lift. A
rammed earth wall can thus be constructed using very little manpower and crucially without
recourse to temporary works such as external scaffolding.

Study area

The data presented here are complied from literary sources, together with field data gathered
by the authors. Spain was chosen for its high density of well researched rammed earth sites
and excellent transport links, allowing access to a large number of structures over a short
period of time. The sites studied were constructed between the 10th and the 19th century, and
the use of rammed earth changed markedly over this time period, allowing observation of a
wide variety of structures including isolated fortifications, city walls, and vernacular
architecture. Figure 2 shows the locations of the sites visited, each mark indicating a site, or
number of sites within a town or city,

Figure 2 Map of sites visited

Characterisation

The characterisation of typologies of rammed earth is important if we are to understand the

behaviour of a rammed earth wall from visual inspection. Only with this knowledge is it
possible to anticipate for example the erosion which may occur to a wall or to predict the
structural behaviour of a building. However, typological descriptions of rammed earth have
‘raised little interest when compared to ornamental and spatial studies’ and only recently have
any attempts been made to classify historic rammed earth construction. Graciani García and
Tabales Rodríguez (2003) identify the following variables which they use to distinguish
between various rammed earth types in the Seville area of southern Spain.
• Composition of the wall; identifying plain rammed earth, horizontal brick layers
between each lift, and walls of mixed composition, where some lifts are separated by a
brick layer, and others are continuous.
• Dominant aggregate used; distinguishing between predominantly gravel mixtures and
those which contain ceramic fragments.
• Height of the lift; two dimensions were observed in Seville, that of short (0.80m), and
high (0.85m and 0.95m).

Investigations carried out by the author’s have led to the conclusions that the dominant
aggregate type is dependent on the geology local to the site, and that rammed earth is only
used as a construction material if the surrounding geology is sufficient to produce a
satisfactory rammed earth mix. The height of the lifts is considered to be determined by local
carpentry traditions, and while the size of the formwork may change over time, it is also likely
to vary spatially, and thus classification using this method is difficult without a large sample
set. A classification using the following characteristics is thus proposed.

Formwork

It is the formwork which distinguishes rammed earth from other variants of earthen
construction such as cob or adobe. Many formwork types have been suggested over time and
in different parts of the world, with the formwork evolving to become more efficient, or being
forgotten and rediscovered some years later (for example Cointeraux 1791). Formwork is
usually made from planks of timber, fixed together and placed to form a box within which the
earth is rammed. Formwork can either be supported by horizontal timbers passing through the
wall or supported using an external scaffold. Where the formwork is supported on horizontal
timbers, the characteristic putlog holes are formed, a feature of some historic rammed earth. It
may be possible to determine the weight of the formwork by observing the size and spacing of
the horizontal timbers. Timbers around 70mm wide by 25mm high appear to be used in the
majority of rammed earth construction (see Figure 4) but a small number of sites used
horizontal timbers 100mm square, indicating that very heavy formwork was used (Figure 4
example 5). Where no putlog holes are present it is likely that the formwork was supported
externally using scaffolding (Figure 4, example 3).
Mix design

Three distinct styles for the filling and ramming of the formwork may be recognised. Each
uses a different mix design and ramming technique, and produces distinctive external
appearances. However when a face is rendered or badly eroded the techniques are more
difficult to identify. Gallego Roca and Valverde Espinosa (1993) identify two different types
of mix design, that of Calicaraedo and of ‘royal’ rammed earth (Tapial Real in Spanish). A
further ‘plain’ rammed earth has been observed.

Calicaraedo rammed earth

This method uses a lime and earth mixture (careado) which is spread by shovel against the
formwork, the interior is then filled with a sand – gravel mixture which is then compacted.
When the formwork is removed, a lime rich wall face is presented, with the lime fused to the
fill behind (Bazzana 1993; Gallego Roca and Valverde Espinosa 1993). The wall then has two
distinct regions; a core of rammed earth which acts to give structural strength and mass, but
is vulnerable to erosion, and an outer face which protects the wall from the weather (Valverde
Espinosa et al. 1993; Arango Gonzalez 1999). Sometimes the external face is rendered
following initial construction, and it is this render which is reapplied periodically to prevent
moisture ingress (Figure 4, examples 1, 4, 5 and 9) and allows patterns to be inscribed into the
face of the wall. Observation of a number of sites suggests that once the lime rich exterior is
removed, the wall core quickly erodes.

Royal rammed earth (Tapial Real)

Also known as Arab-concrete, ‘royal’ rammed earth consists of a lime and earth mixture
compacted in layers, where the lime:earth ratio is approximately 1:3 (Figure 4, example 7).
Walls constructed using this technique are found in the 8th century Alcazaba Cadima in
Granada (Arango Gonzalez 1999). Royal rammed earth does not require rendering due to the
high lime content and this makes structures both stronger and more expensive than other types
of rammed earth, hence the name ‘royal’. In practice, ‘royal’ rammed earth is difficult to
distinguish from plain rammed earth, except in colour and through mineralogical testing of
samples.
Plain rammed earth

Similar to the ‘royal’ rammed earth mix, but with a significantly lower lime content. This
technique is closest to modern ‘unstabilised’ rammed earth such as found at the Eden Project
in Cornwall, UK. A common feature of this type of rammed earth is horizontal banding
visible at the surface of the wall marking either the compaction layers or indicating the
timbers used for the formwork (Figure 4, examples 2 and 8).

Lift bond

When one horizontal layer of rammed earth is complete, the formwork is dismantled, moved
vertically and another horizontal layer begun. Because construction progresses horizontally,
there may be a delay in the vertical movement of the formwork and as a result the bond
between each lift may be weaker than the bond between each compaction layer within the
formwork.

Almost all of the construction typologies observed make use of a flat stone or brick placed
above the horizontal timber used to support the formwork (Figure 1). This bridging device
facilitates compaction of the rammed earth above the horizontal timber and allows the timber
to be removed and reused on completion of that formwork box. Usually these stones are
spread through the full thickness of the wall, but are often not visible at the face of the wall.

The majority of typologies identified construct a new layer directly on the previous one. The
only indication of a lift is the line of putlog holes visible in the wall. However a proportion of
the sites visited do have some material placed through the full thickness of the wall, between
each lift. Layers of other material placed between the lifts are known in Spanish as males.
Rammed earth constructed with males is termed ‘chained’ by Graciani García and Tabales
Rodríguez (2003). The majority of the males are made using brick, but some in Seville dating
from the first half of the 13th century are constructed in stone (Figure 4, example 5), and in
Cordoba parts of the city walls have a lime male between the joints (Figure 4, example 4).
Brick males were introduced in the second half of the 12th century, (Graciani García and
Tabales Rodríguez 2003). The male can be between one and three bricks thick, and the bricks
are usually only present at the surface of the wall. The putlog hole is usually below the level
of the male, indicating that the male was the first, rather than the last, layer laid within a lift.
All the structures where a male is present are constructed using the calicaraedo mix.
The mixed fabric technique outlined in Graciani García and Tabales Rodríguez (2003) was
observed at a small proportion of sites. A number of lifts are constructed with no material
between the lifts, then a brick layer is introduced. This usually occurs where rammed earth is
used as an infill within a brickwork superstructure (Figure 4, example 8).

While the males may have been introduced to strengthen the bond between lifts, Langenbach
(2004) argues that males are provided for seismic resistance, and notes that horizontal
introductions into the walls of buildings are not unique to rammed earth, or even earthen
architecture. Hurd (2006) argues that vegetable matter placed as a ‘mattress’ between each
third lift, observed in Armenia and in India is placed as seismic protection. The horizontal
members are designed to act as weak layers, forcing diagonal shear cracks to propagate
horizontally and so preventing collapse of the building.

Design

With the increasing availability, but high cost, of fired brick around the 16th century there are
examples of rammed earth walls being constructed and faced in half bricks, thus giving the
impression of an expensive brick structure, the reality being a rammed earth wall acting
structurally behind (Figure 4, example 6). By the 19th century rammed earth appears to have
been used more as an infill, much as modern blockwork, between a brick superstructure
(Figure 4, examples 7-9). Also observed was a technique known as lunetos (literally,
‘moons’) where lime was placed in a half moon within the ends of the formwork boxes
(Figure 4, example 10,). This technique increases the strength and durability of the corners of
the rammed earth box. With the advent of artillery, many of the rammed earth walls which
were still in military use were faced with masonry to protect against bombardment.

Conclusions

A large number of different structures have been studied, and a number of different typologies
identified. These typologies are based on the type of formwork used, the mix design, and the
type of joint used between each lift. Figure 3 shows the characteristics observed, and the
initial construction dates of structures with those characteristics and Figure 4 presents
example structures typifying the characteristics observed. It can be seen from Figure 3 that
there is a clear development of the rammed earth technique in Iberia from the 10th to the 19th
century. Within this development however, there is room for spatial and economic variation,
with the mix design and formwork size changing to suit local geology and traditions. For
example the choice between calicaraedo, royal or plain rammed earth would be based on
geological and economic considerations. The visual appearance of a structure becomes
increasingly important in monumental buildings over time, and the use of brick slowly
increases, for ornamental and prestige purposes. Where a rammed earth structure is purely
defensive, it is clad in masonry from the 15th century onwards, but the use of rammed earth in
vernacular structures such as barns continues into the 19th century.

Buildings constructed during the Muslim expansion and civil war periods were built in
rammed earth for their speed of construction and structural integrity. Internally supported
formwork, leaving small putlog holes was used and were lime was available a careado
mixture and render was used (Figure 4, example 1). Where lime was not available, a plain
rammed earth mixture was used (Figure 4, example 2). For city walls, too thick for internally
supported formwork, external scaffolding was used, and no putlog holes are left in the wall
(Figure 4, example 3). First lime (Figure 4, example 4) then brick (Figure 4, example 5) males
are introduced into rammed earth walls. Brick was used in conjunction with rammed earth in
various forms, such as facing of rammed earth walls to appear as brick (Figure 4, example 6),
and as brick quoins with a rammed earth infill (Figure 4, examples 7 and 8). Following the
reconquest of Iberia by Christians, Muslim builders were employed by the Christians, and
these Muslims continued to use rammed earth as a construction technique. The advent of
artillery in the 15th century led to the cladding of rammed earth structures in masonry, and
there many be many rammed earth walls currently ‘hidden’ beneath masonry walls. Rammed
earth continued as a vernacular building technique throughout Spain, Portugal and France
until its ‘rediscovery’ by Francois Cointeraux in 1793. Rammed earth continued to be used in
conjunction with brick as a ornamental feature (Figure 4, example 9) or using as a quick
cheap construction material using lunetos (Figure 4, example 10).

This paper has shown that a clear development of the rammed earth technique can be
quantified and is observed in the relatively small geographical area has been studied. It is
hoped that this framework can be extended to cover other parts of the world, and thus
comparisons made between geographically or historically distant types of rammed earth. It
has been argued that some aspects of rammed earth development are dependent on local
human factors (for example formwork height and wall thickness), others (mix design and lime
content) are dependent on local geology, while many ‘design’ features, and the placing of a
male layer appear to develop over time.
 Form
Mix Male Design Initial construction dates
(from Figure 4) work
Typology

Brick columns
Calicaraedo

Brick faced
External

Lunetos
Internal

Royal

Brick

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800
None
Lime
Plain

Plain
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Figure 3 Typological changes to rammed earth over time, examples are shown in Figure 4

References

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the Alcazaba Cadima. Materials and Structures 32 pp.70-74.

Bazzana, A., 1993. La Construction en terre dans Al - Andalus: le Tabiya. 7th international
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Silves, Portugal, pp.76 - 82.

Cointeraux, F., 1791. Traite des Constructions Rurales et e leur disposition.Paris

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Gallego Roca, F. J. and Valverde Espinosa, I., 1993. The city walls of Granada (Spain), Use,
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278.

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Langenbach, R., 2004. Soil Dynamics and the Earthquake Destruction of the Arg-e Bam.
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Valverde Espinosa, I., Lopez Osorio, J. M., Sebastian Pardo, E. and Ontiveros Ortega, E.,
1993. Study of the material used in the earthen walls of the city of Granada (Spain).
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Figure 4 Rammed earth typologies in Spain