BSTC6002 Mahayana Buddhism

Name: Tan Huilun Ron

University No: 3035251749

An analysis of the Bodhisattva Ideal in Mahayana Buddhism

Introduction

It is not too difficult a task to identify the doctrines of Theravada Buddhism, also known as
the dhamma-vinaya. Founded by the Buddha more than 2,500 years ago, Theravada
Buddhism teachings have been neatly categorised and elucidated in the Tipitaka, affirmed by
the Buddhist councils which had taken place 6 times between 544 B.C – 1954 A.D.
However, to look at the doctrines of Mahayana would be a very nebulous enterprise due to its
diverse identities and cultural-adaptations over time ever since Buddhism spread widely
across Central, South, South-East and East Asia. While it is without any doubt that early
Mahayana originated from India, but to surmise the geographical locations of the Mahayana
traditions or doctrines, that would be futile. There is no unitary defining concept of a
Mahayana doctrine purely because Mahayana teachings are not a homogenous entity that
originated from a single geographical location or an identifiable school. Instead, as described
by Williams (1989), Mahayana was a “spiritual movement” (p.3) where new and distinctive
canonical literature evolved concurrently in different geographical areas across space and
time.

Although there is not a single, unitary doctrine of the Mahayana Buddhism, there are still
relatable central unifying concepts of Mahayana Buddhism that is shared across all schools,
such as: the perfection of wisdom, practice of compassion and understanding and directly
experiencing emptiness. Further to these unifying concepts, a Mahayanist can perfect
himself/herself based on the Bodhisattva ideal, or walk the Bodhisattva’s path as a means to
enlightenment. Oldmeadow (1997) explains the Bodhisattva Ideal as a “meeting ground for
cardinal Mahayanist doctrines concerning prajna (wisdom), karuna (compassion) and sunyata
(voidness)…” (p. 181, emphasis mine). This “meeting ground” can be skilfully experienced
and practised by the human body i.e. any layperson can aim to achieve this ideal and thus it

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has become a very popular goal of Mahayana practitioners. Nattier (2003) further describes
the Bodhisattva’s path as a “vocation” where Buddhism is approached in its most “rigorous
and demanding form”.

Hence, it is my intention in this essay to explore the defining characteristics of the

Bodhisattva “vocation”, and to analyse what makes this path so rigorous and demanding. I
will then attempt to answer the “why” aspects of this path – if it is such a difficult path, why
walk it? Since Buddha has already given clear teachings as evident in the Theravada tradition
where one can achieve arahantship with precise doctrines all laid bare for the practitioner to
follow, why choose the Bodhisattva path where one has to even abandon the goal of
enlightenment? In addressing the “whats”, “whys” and “hows” of the Bodhisattva Ideal, I
also argue that the bodhisattva path serves a very practical purpose for the continuity of the
dharma and an empowering vehicle for self-transformation that can be easily adapted and
accepted in any cultural context.

The Bodhisattva Ideal: defining the path

Before one can define the Bodhisattva Ideal succinctly, it is important to understand the
underlying characteristics of all Mahayana Buddhist doctrines, i.e. compassion and the
doctrine of ‘no-self’. Yao (2008) explains, in the Chinese scripture Taisho Tripitaka,
“compassion is the foundation of the Buddha Way” (p. 267). Yao further adds that wisdom
and compassion is the foundation of all Bodhisattva Practices (bodhisattva-carya), arguing
that both compassion and doctrine of ‘no-self’ are compatible and are directly experienced by
a Bodhisattva. Such a view is agreeably held by most Buddhist scholars, with Oldmeadow
(1997) stating the principle doctrines of the Bodhisattvayana as compassion, wisdom and
emptiness.

Superior motivation and Bodhisattva Vows

Williams (1989) explains that Atisha in the Bodhipathapradipa, divides beings in terms of
their motivations or aspirations, into three types: the lesser, the middling and the superior (p.
194). Atisha states that the lesser beings are selfish and are motivated by desire in their
actions, concerned with only this life or some future rebirth. For the middling practitioners,

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they renounce worldly pleasures and engage in virtuous actions, with the motivation of
attaining enlightenment as an Arhat to end suffering for themselves. For the most superior
beings, they are motivated by bringing a complete end to all the sufferings of all sentient
beings, which Atisha declares this as the Bodhisattva path of the Mahayana. Hence, such a
superior motivation and aspiration are the key characteristics of defining a Bodhisattva.

According to Oldmeadow (1997), “the bodhisattva is one who voluntarily renounces the right
to enter nirvana, who, under certain inextinguishable vows, undergoes countless rebirths in
the samsaric realm in order to devote his/her energies, in a spirit of boundless compassion, to
the deliverance of all beings down to ‘the last blade of grass’” (p. 183). As such, the
characteristics of the Bodhisattva Ideal is not a doctrine that can be defined by the type
school, lineage, traditions, robes or philosophy. Instead, it is the superior motivation and
aspiration of liberating all sentient beings that defines the Bodhisattva.

The Bodhisattva path can be summarised in the following. First, one must be awakened to the
thought of enlightenment. This thought will mature into a courageous resolve to attain
liberation for the benefit of all beings. With this tremendous resolve, the aspirant will take the
Bodhisattva vows, as stated in the ninth and tenth vows of Samantabhadra in the Avatamsaka
Sutra:

“Ninth, Accommodate and benefit all living beings.

Tenth, Transfer all merits and virtues universally.
…
If a Bodhisattva accords with living beings, then he accords with and makes offerings
to all Buddhas. If he can honor and serve living beings, then he honors and serves the
Thus Come Ones. If he makes living beings happy, he is making all Thus Come Ones
happy. Why is this? It is because all Buddhas, Thus Come Ones, take the Mind of
Great Compassion as their substance. Because of living beings, they develop Great
Compassion. From Great Compassion the Bodhi Mind is born; and because of the
Bodhi Mind, they accomplish Supreme, Perfect Enlightenment.
…

Even when the realm of empty space is exhausted, the realms of living beings are
exhausted, the karma of living beings is exhausted, and the afflictions of living beings

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 are exhausted, I will still transfer all merits and virtues endlessly, continuously, in
thought after thought without cease. My body, mouth and mind never weary of these
deeds.

Compassion and bodhicitta

With compassion as the basis and motivating force of the Bodhisattva, taking such a
demanding vow may appear to be a sacrificial heroic path, but as stated earlier, great
compassion in according all beings is aroused only when one directly realizes emptiness,
which in turns generate bodhicitta, or the Awakening Mind. Thus, the resultant bodhicitta is
an experiential result of understanding non-self or emptiness, where wisdom springs forth
with compassion as the foundation of the Bodhisattva path.

Having taken the vows of a such a great resolve, the Bodhisattva perfects the six paramitas –
generosity, morality, patience, effort, concentration and wisdom. In perfecting the six
paramitas, the Bodhisattva passes through the 10 bhumis (stages) until attainment of
complete awakening, or full Buddhahood. These vows are crucial because they direct all the
spiritual development of the aspirant – the vows transform the consciousness, where “they are
no longer statements of intent but pure spiritual acts with incalculable effects” (Oldmeadow
1997, p. 184).

The union of wisdom and compassion

During the early stages of the Bodhisattva path, the aspirant must direct all energies on the
realization of emptiness without which the perfection of wisdom is not possible. In the
perfection of wisdom, dualistic thinking and discrimination is thus abandoned – the
Bodhisattva can renounce enlightenment because samsara and nirvana are not viewed as
opposites anymore, but a transcendental understanding that samsara and nirvana are
experienced in the here and now, and attending this awareness of emptiness is the
compassion to deliver all sentient beings from suffering.

Oldmeadow exemplifies the relationship between compassion and wisdom as not only
“inseparable but as identical” (p. 186). He explains that compassion is a “function of prajna”

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(ibid), a resultant quality or dynamic driving force that motivates one to act for the sake of
sentient beings. Heinrich Zimmer (1951) describes it in this way:

“Within the hearts of all creatures compassion is present as the sign of the potential
bodhisattvahood; for all things are sunyata, the void – and the pure reflex of the
void…is compassion. Compassion, indeed, is the force that holds things in
manifestation – just as it with-holds the bodhisattva from nirvana. The whole
universe, therefore, is karuna, compassion, which is also known as sunyata, the void.”
(p.553)

Thus, the Bodhisattva penetrates the emptiness nature of all phenomena through prajna,
while compassion sees the reality of the phenomenal realm. The Bodhisattva directly
apprehends the lack of an existent self, yet simultaneously is motivated to deliver all sentient
beings from being trapped in samsara. There is no contradiction here because the Bodhisattva
has already transcended any dualistic notions and yet can experience reality as it is in the
samsara. As Suzuki (1971) puts it, “the bodhisattva weeps with suffering beings and at the
same time realises that there is one who never weeps, being above sufferings, tribulations and
contaminations” (p.229).

Why embark on such a demanding and arduous path?

As explained earlier, a Bodhisattva is motivated by great compassion where he/she renounces

everything and offer him/herself for the welfare of all sentient beings. Harris (2015) argues
that such “demandingness” is actually an essential component for the “psychological
transformation” of the Bodhisattva as it “allows him to radically identify his well-being with
the well-being of others, thereby lessening the tension between self and others” (p. 201).

Firstly, this demandingness serves a soteriological purpose in transforming one’s

consciousness or view radically in order to transcend the self. As Buddhism evolves and
responds differently according to cultural and socio-political context, I argue that this
demandingness of the Bodhisattva path also plays an important practical role in ensuring the
flourishing of the dharma that is not in conflict or contradiction to other doctrines such as the

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Theravadaschools. The bodhisattva path is a “add on”, and does not negate or contradict early
teachings. In fact, as mentioned earlier, it strengthens the view of non-self and emptiness.

Secondly, as society progresses and with urban modernisation, solitary retreats or practising
the vinaya may not be as appealing to practitioners anymore. The Bodhisattva path thus offer
a very inspiring alternative via a noble cause i.e. one works not for his enlightenment, but for
others’ welfare and their liberation. Such a demanding goal is appealing to beings not
because it is an illusive dream or imagination of the heroic self. In fact, it is because it is the
path of skilful means, or upaya, to break any illusions one have of himself, and through such
an arduous path, one perfects the six paramitas. This serve a very practical purpose for the
gradual path of realisation for the practitioner as it is a very action-oriented and dynamic
practice that one can work on in his daily life.

Thirdly, I argue that the Bodhisattva path reassures the aspirant of having a system of support
because he/she relies not only on the power of his/her own vows, but also the power of others
i.e. realised Bodhisattvas such as Avalokitesvara, Manjushri, Samantabhadra etc. They
function not just as role models for the aspirant to emulate, but also empowers the aspirant to
go beyond their limits simply because philosophically, the nature of emptiness implies that
the possibilities are infinite. The Bodhisattva path is thus not a lonely one, but a community
of selfless heroes and heroines - motivating, practising and inspiring one another in samsara.
As such, ‘other-power’ is a formidable force and continues to ensure that the Bodhisattva
path of skilful means remains relevant for whatever times, as long as there are suffering
beings. Therefore, the Bodhisattva ideal calls for immediate action – it is highly adaptable
and is not dependent on rituals or doctrines but faith and devotion to help others.

Conclusion

To achieve the Bodhisattva Ideal is a very demanding journey, but as summarised above, the
path itself is skilful means for the perfection of the six paramitas in order to attain complete
Buddhahood. In the path of dedicating oneself for the benefit of sentient beings solely, the
aspirant will directly apprehend reality and emptiness, as well as for prajna to be perfected.
With compassion as the motivating force and foundation in the path, what is viewed as

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strenuous and arduous to the untrained, may actually become liberating for the practitioner in
helping him/her to find a purpose in navigating through samsara.

In conclusion, the Bodhisattva path is an empowering path or “vocation” because it

transforms an individual’s thoughts immediately through the vows, and the goal of
Bodhisattva Ideal allows the aspirant to engage in a mind beyond time and space, liberating
oneself from dualistic conceptual frames of the phenomenal world. The Bodhisattva path
serves soteriological functions for the flourish of Buddhism as a religion, very practical
skilful functions for the spiritual development of the practitioner, vital communal functions of
unifying the sangha and the ultimate function of achieving Buddhahood.

~end~

Bibliography

Harris, S. E. (2015). Demandingness, Well-Being and the Bodhisattva Path. Sophia SOPHIA,
54(2), 201-216.

Jan. Nattier, A Few Good Men: The Bodhisattva Path according to the Inquiry of Ugra
(Ugraparipṛcchā). Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2003.

Oldmeadow, H. (1997). Delivering the last blade of grass: Aspects of the bodhisattva ideal in
the Mahāyāna. Asian Philosophy, 7(3), 181-194.

Suzuki, D. T. (1971). Essays in Zen Buddhism (third series). New York: Samuel Weiser.

Williams, P. (1989). Mahāyāna Buddhism: The doctrinal foundations. London: Routledge.

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Yao, F. (2008). The Compatibility between Bodhisattva Compassion and ‘No-self’. Asian
Philosophy, 18(3), 267-278.

Zimmer, H. R. (1951). Philosophies of India. New York: Pantheon Books.