DER and RES

Claudio Cañizares
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Power & Energy Systems (power.uwaterloo.ca)
WISE (wise.uwaterloo.ca)
With material from researchers: Fabian Calero, Mostafa Farrokhabadi, Dario Peralta,
Mohammad Ravanji, Daniel Remon, Bharat Solanki, Behnam Tamimi, Hamid
Zareipour.

1 ECE 760: DER and RES

Outline
• Distribute Energy Resources (DER):
• Distributed Generation (DG) versus DERs
• Technology overview
• Renewable Energy Sources (RES):
• DER versus RES
• Voltage Source Converters (VSCs)
• Battery Energy Storage System (BESS)
• Solar PV Generation (SPVG)
• Wind-turbine Generation (WG)
• Examples.
2 ECE 760: DER and RES
DG vs DER
• DG definition:
• A generation plant connected to the grid at distribution Medium
Voltage (MV) levels or on the customer’s side of the meter at Low
Voltage (LV) levels.
• Connection and controls define DGs more than capacity:
• Proposed capacities of kWs to MWs:
• DoE: less than a kW to tens of MW.
• IEEE: less than 10 MW.
• CIGRE: less than 100 MW.
• EPRI: a few kW to 50 MW.
• Not directly controlled and monitored by transmission system operator.
• Include renewable generation such as solar, wind, and biomass
generation.
• Example: ~100 MW solar PV plant in Sarnia.

3 ECE 760: DER and RES

DG vs DER
• DER definition:
• Generation resources and controllable loads connected to a distribution system
directly at MV or through a customer at LV.
• Includes DGs plus energy storage such as batteries, fuel cells, and thermal storage,
and controllable loads such as EV with smart chargers.
• DER illustration from https://www.nrel.gov/grid/real-time-optimization-control.html:

• DERs alone do not make microgrids, but are an essential part of them.

4 ECE 760: DER and RES

DER Technologies
• Renewable generation:
• Solar:
• PV (details later).
• Thermal.
• Wind (details later).
• Small hydro.
• Bio-fuels from bio-waste.
• Geothermal.
• Ocean.

5 ECE 760: DER and RES

DER Technologies
• Nonrenewable:
• Engines (gas-diesel):
• Mature industry.
• Low costs.
• High efficiency.
• High emissions.
• Peak shaving.
• Load following.
• Reserve support.
• CHP capability.

6 ECE 760: DER and RES

DER Technologies
• Gas turbine (GT):
• Low costs.
• Good efficiency.
• As polluting as gas engines.
• Portable units.
• Reserve support.
• CHP capability.
• Good start-up time.

7 ECE 760: DER and RES

DER Technologies
• Microturbine (MT):
• Low noise.
• Small size.
• Long maintenance intervals.
• Fuel flexibility.
• Good efficiency in CHP.
• Peak shaving.
• Stand-by power.
• Fast start-up time.

8 ECE 760: DER and RES

DER Technologies
• Battery Energy Storage
System (BESS) (more
details later):
• Battery cell: lead-acid,
nickel-cadmium, zinc-air,
lithium-ion (most common
nowadays), etc.
• Power Conditioning System
(PCS): ac/dc VSC and dc/dc
buck/boost converter plus
controls.
• Relatively high costs and
shorter life than other ESS.
• Fast response.

9 ECE 760: DER and RES

DER Technologies
• Flow BESS (FBESS):
• Positive and negative liquid
electrolytes separated by
exchange membrane.
• PCS is the same as BESS.
• Decoupling of energy and
power capacity makes it
scalable.
• Cost depends on electrolyte.
• Longer life but lower round-
trip efficiency than BESS.
• Fast response.
10 ECE 760: DER and RES
DER Technologies
• Flywheel ESS (FESS):
• Energy stored in large
inertia of mechanical
system.
• PCS is the based on
ac/dc/ac VSCs.
• Low energy capacity.
• Longer life than BESS,
and high round-trip
efficiency.
• Very fast response (faster
than BESS).

11 ECE 760: DER and RES

DER Technologies
• Hydrogen Fuel Cell ESS
(FCESS):
• Electrolyzer to generate hydrogen
(charge) used by fuel cell
(discharge).
• Popular technologies: Polymer
Electrolyte Membrane (PEM),
Phosphoric Acid (PA), and Solid
Oxide (SO).
• Discharge PCS is the same as
BESS, and charge PCS is a
simple controlled ac/dc rectifier.
• Costly but allows long-term (e.g.
seasonal) storage.
• Longer life than BESS, but low
round-trip efficiency.
• Slow response compared to
BESS and FESS.

12 ECE 760: DER and RES

DER Technologies
• Thermal ESS (TESS):
• Thermal energy stored in solid
(e.g. bricks), liquids (e.g. water),
underground (e.g. GSHP), or
phase-change materials.
• Main components:
heating/cooling element, storage
and heat exchanger, and air
handling unit.
• Simple ac controlled interphase.
• High energy capacity.
• Longer life and cheaper than
BESS, but lower round-trip
efficiency due to thermal cycles.
• Fast charging electrical response,
with slow thermal discharge.

13 ECE 760: DER and RES

DER Technologies
• Summary (based on https://www.wbdg.org/resources/distributed-energy-resources-der):
Technology Benefits Drawbacks Fuel Choice Size (kW)
Microturbines • Thermal recovery improves efficiency • Insufficient thermal output for industrial Natural gas, propane, diesel, 15–250
• Thermal output for residential or small apps multi-fuel
Efficiency is 28% to 33% commercial apps
• Operable as base, peaking, or back-up
• Commercially available in limited
quantities

Small Gas Combustion Turbines
Efficiency is 25% to 40%
Internal Combustion Engines
Efficiency is 28% to 37%
• Highly efficient when used with thermal •
recovery
• Technology commercially available
today—most likely candidate for on-site
needs >3 MW in DG application
• Can operate base load, back-up, or
peaking
• Several manufacturers
• Relatively low installed costs
• Bulk power delivered when utility is
unavailable
• Fast startup allows less sensitive
processes to be served without need for •
UPSs (emergency lighting, HVAC,
elevators, some manufacturing
processes)
• Very mature, stable technology
• Can be paralleled to grid or other
generators with controls package
• Can be very efficient when combined
with heat recovery
Potentially onerous siting and permitting Natural gas, distillate, methane 3,000–15,000
requirements
• Environmental issues—emissions and
noise
• Possible on-site fuel storage needs
• Insurance policy effect: Capital is only Diesel, natural gas, propane, <1–6,000
being used when back-up generator is bio-gas, other petroleum
running distillates
Marginal cost of production generally
favors utility source in all but rare
occasions
• Environmental issues—emissions and
noise
• Possible on-site fuel storage needs

14 ECE 760: DER and RES

DER Technologies
Technology Benefits
Fuel Cells • Very high fuel efficiencies from
hydrogen to electricity
High temp: Efficiency is 45% to 55% • Potential to operate base load with
utility back-up
Low temp: Efficiency is 30% to 40% • Possible residential application—a no-
moving-parts energy appliance
• Relatively low roundtrip efficiencies, • Not a zero-emission technology—the
but improved efficiencies when
combined with heat recovery
• Green technology—water and heat are
only emissions from hydrogen fuel,
low emissions from other fuels
• High costs
Photovoltaic • No variable costs for fuel
• No moving parts—inexpensive
Typical PV panels 15-22% maintenance and long life
• No emissions, no noise
80-90% efficiency for converter • Can be used for peak shaving
interfaces • Highly reliable, mature technology
• Competitive costs
Wind • No variable costs for fuel
• In utility implementation, zero
Typically ~50% for turbines emissions may allow green power
price premium
80-90% efficiency for converter • Mature technology
interfaces • Multiple manufacturers
• Competitive costs
15
Drawbacks Fuel Choice Size (kW)
• Few commercially available devices Direct by hydrogen; natural gas, MCFC (molten carbonate
• Most research efforts are for automotive propane, methanol, or other fuel cells): 250–2,850
applications hydrogen-rich source through PAFC (Phosphoric acid
• Need for fuel reformer in almost all reformer fuel cells): 200
applications (reduced fuel to electrical PEMFC (proton
efficiencies) exchange membrane fuel
cells): 3–250
effect of that may vary by state SOFC (solid oxide fuel
• Cold start is 1-2 days for MCFC, 3 hours cells): 225–2,240
for PAFC, 1 hour for PEMFC, and 2
minutes for SOFC
• Big foot print (600 ft²/kW) None but depends on solar Limited by available area:
• Not suited for base load radiation Rooftop typically a few
• Not suited for back-up except when kW
accompanied by storage Farms at MV connection
• Variable energy output hundreds of MW
• Need to meet siting requirements None but need min. wind speed From a few kW to a few
• Generation is intermittent with wind, and (value depends on technology) MW
energy output can vary with wind speed
squared or cubed over operation range
• Not appropriate as backup
• Needs utility source for energy
purchases and sales
• Can require footprint up to 100ft²/kW
ECE 760: DER and RES
DER Technologies
Technology Benefits Drawbacks Fuel Choice Size (kW)
Batteries • No variable costs for fuel • Limited energy capacity None From a few kW/kWh to
• Rapidly maturing technology • Degradation issues and limited lifespan a few MW/MWh
Li-ion 90+% efficiency • Charge and discharge capacity allows • Although decreasing, still high costs
multiple applications such as arbitrage
80-90% efficiency for converter and regulation
interfaces • Fast response

Flywheels
Mech. and motor efficiency ~90%
80-90% efficiency for converter
interfaces
• No variable costs for fuel • Very limited energy capacity constraints None From a few kW to a few
• Large power capacity applications MW
• Low maintenance • High costs From a few kWh to a
• Charge and discharge capacity and • Developing technology few hundred kWh
very fast response make it ideal for
regulation–ideal for pairing with wind
generation
• Long lifespan

16 ECE 760: DER and RES

DER Costs
• Summary as of 2016 (https://www.wbdg.org/resources/distributed-energy-resources-der):
O&M Costs
DER Equipment Capital Cost ($/kW) Time Until Maintenance Required Average Maintenance Costs
(hours of operation) (¢/kWh)
Microturbines 700–1,100 5,000–8,000 0.5–1.6 (estimated)
Combustion Turbines 300–1,000 4,000–8,000 0.4–0.5
Internal Combustion Engines 300–800 750–1,000: change oil and oil filter 0.7–1.5 (natural gas)
8,000: rebuild engine head 0.5–1.0 (diesel)
16,000: rebuild engine block
Fuel Cells 700–1,100 Yearly: fuel supply system 0.5–1.0 (estimated)
Yearly: reformer system check
40,000: replace cell stack
Photovoltaics [2018 NREL] 2,100 (commercial)–3,110 Biyearly maintenance check 1% of initial investment per year
(residential)
Wind Turbines 800–3,500 Biyearly maintenance check 1.5–2% of initial investment per
year
Batteries Li-ion 4 H capacity [2018 1,570–2,322 $/kW 5–8 yrs major maintenance to 10 $/kW/yr + 0.03 ¢/kWh for 10 yrs
PNNL] 393–581 $/kWh address degradation (cell lifespan
replacement)
Flywheel 0.25 h capacity [2018 1,050–2,544 $/kW Annual preventive 5.6 $/kW/yr + 0.03 ¢/kWh for 20+
PNNL] 4,320–11,520 $/kWh 5–10 yrs major maintenance yrs lifespan

17 ECE 760: DER and RES

DER Benefits
• Electricity prices:
• Using DER when market prices are high.
• Mitigate generator market power.
• Combined heat and power (CHP) generation:
• Increased efficiency, up to 90%.
• Meeting thermal and electrical energy need.
• CHP increases the costs of unit by about 10%, which makes it
attractive.
• Reliability/resiliency:
• Mostly used when power outages costs are high or to dress long-term
blackouts associated with storms.
• Energy-sensitive consumers look for reliable power with 99.9999%
reliability: 30 second outage per year.
• Most DER technologies can be used for these purposes.

18 ECE 760: DER and RES

DER Benefits
• Improve power quality (attractive for LDCs):
• Voltage regulation at some buses.
• Provision of reactive power support at distribution levels.
• Provision of ancillary services:
• Fast start-up units for reserve.
• Facilitate participation on load management/curtailment
programs.
• Upgrade deferrals for T&D systems:
• In distribution systems when system is operating at its marginal
capacity.
• For congested transmission systems, DERs can help differ
transmission expansion.

19 ECE 760: DER and RES

DER Benefits
• Utilization of renewable energy (RE) resources:
• Some RE resources are not economic to transfer or convert
in large amounts.
• Local integration of some RE resources is easier and more
efficient.
• Flexibility:
• Variety of energy sources such as multiple fuels and RE.
• Improves security of energy supply.
• Microgrid and load management capabilities.
• Off-grid applications.
20 ECE 760: DER and RES
DER Challenges
• Technical integration with the grid:
• Voltage and frequency control design, interactions and
coordination.
• Protection and reverse power flow issues in distribution
grids.
• Non-dispatchable and variable RE resources.
• Economics:
• Heat producing DERs should be used in CHP mode, such as
microturbinbes and fuel cells, but are customer dependent,
as significant heat demand is required.
• Energy storage technologies are expensive, except TESS.

21 ECE 760: DER and RES

DER Challenges
• In competitive markets, DERs have to compete with
large power producers:
• Wider competition.
• Markets are designed with large power plants in mind.
• Need network modifications for power export: Who pays for
the costs?
• DER participation in spot markets:
• May put more burden on T&D system.
• Would had to guarantee bids in the market, and thus in case
of unavailability, it would have to buy power from spot
markets.

22 ECE 760: DER and RES

DER vs RES
• DERs include RES, but RES can also form large,
concentrated plants such as wind and solar farms
connected at High Voltage (HV) levels.
• Mostly based on solar and wind power, coupled in some
cases to energy storage, especially BESS, to regulate
power variability.
• Non-dispatchable, variable generation due to the nature
of the energy source.
• Mostly interfaced to the grid nowadays through VSC.
• Zero or little inertia.

23 ECE 760: DER and RES

VSC
• Typical six pulse VSC with IGBT/GTO switches:

24 ECE 760: DER and RES

VSC
• Switching scheme:

25 ECE 760: DER and RES

VSC
• Modeling full commutation:

26 ECE 760: DER and RES

VSC

• Observe the high content of harmonics in the ac voltages and currents.

27 ECE 760: DER and RES

VSC
• Pulse-width modulation (PWM) control techniques may
also be used (“popular” in low voltage level
applications).
• Beside the control advantages, this technique
eliminates certain lower harmonics, although it creates
high level harmonics.
• For example, for a 6-pulse VSC:

28 ECE 760: DER and RES

VSC
Fire valves when carrier and
modulation signals cross
CARRIER:

MODULATION:

29 ECE 760: DER and RES

VSC
• This results on:

• Changing the modulation ratio, i.e. the magnitude of the modulation signal, results in
changes of the ac voltage magnitudes.
• Shifting the modulation signal leads to phase shifts on the ac voltages.

30 ECE 760: DER and RES

BESS
• M. Farrokhabadi, S. König, C. A. Cañizares, K. Bhattacharya, and T. Leibfried, “Energy Storage System Models
for Microgrid Stability Analysis and Dynamic Simulation,” IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 33, no. 2,
March 2018, pp. 2301-2312.

31 ECE 760: DER and RES

BESS
• Average model:

32 ECE 760: DER and RES

BESS Controls
Buck/boost control
Current control

Grid forming controls

33 ECE 760: DER and RES

BESS Controls
• Power, damping, and frequency regulation:

1. Constant P: FLP = 0
2. POD: FLP = 1
3. Primary and secondary
frequency regulation (PFR
and SFR) FLP = 2
4. POD and FR: FLP = 3

34 ECE 760: DER and RES

BESS Controls
• Reactive power, power factor, and voltage regulation:

1. Constant Q: FLQ = 0
2. Constant P.F.: FLQ = 1
3. Voltage regulation: FLQ = 2

35 ECE 760: DER and RES

SPVG
~100 MWpeak solar farm
connected to Bluewater Power MV distribution
system near Sarnia, ON, (largest in the world
in 2010; as of 2016 the largest is a ~1.55 GW
farm in Tengger Desert, China)

36 ECE 760: DER and RES

SPVG Controls
• Original PQ controls:
• P output kept at maximum using an MPPT control of the dc-dc
converter VI output:

• Q = 0 (unity power factor) with Q/V control of PWM VSC, so it is not a

Q load for the system with negative impact on voltage.

37 ECE 760: DER and RES

SPVG Controls
• RE generators were required
to disconnect under faults,
which created low voltage and
frequency problems with loss
of power.
• Now they are required to
provide reactive power during
fault conditions via Low-
Voltage Ride-Through (LVRT)/
or Fault Ride-Through (FTR)
control, i.e. converter Q
injection.
• More jurisdictions are now
requiring full V output control
like standard generators. LVRT/FTR converter
output characteristics

38 ECE 760: DER and RES

SPVG Controls
• Some jurisdictions are also
requiring nowadays some
frequency control:
• MPPT control is deactivated
to allow some limited P
control, thus de-rating (de-
loading) the plant.
• Some manufactures are
providing controls so that
generator provide also
virtual inertia, such as the
Synchronous Power
Controller (SPC), which
renders the generator a
Virtual Synchronous
Generator (VSG):
39 ECE 760: DER and RES
WG
• Ripley-Kincardine, ON, WG plant: 76 MW with 38x2 MW Enercon Type
4/D SGPM generators connected at 230kV (largest farm as of 2010 is the
on-shore 6.8 GW plant in Gansu, China):

40 ECE 760: DER and RES

WG
• Type 1/A, fixed speed with pitch control:

vw

Gear
Generator
Box
ωm
Pm
Tm

P controls

Pitch
β

41 ECE 760: DER and RES

WG
• Type 2/B, Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) with
variable speed through variable rotor resistance, plus
pitch control:
vw

Gear
Generator
Box
ωm
Pm
Tm

P controls

Pitch
β

42 ECE 760: DER and RES

WG
• Type 3/C, DFIG with rotor converters plus pitch controls:

vw

Gear
Generator
Box

ωm
Pm DC Link
Tm

VR VSC VSC Vt
IR Vdc It
Idc Pt
P and V/Q DC link Qt
controls controls
β Pitch

43 ECE 760: DER and RES

WG
• Type 4/D, Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator
(PMSG) or IG with ac-dc-ac full converter interface,
similar to SPVG:

vw

DC Link

Generator
ωm
VG VSC VSC
Pm
IG
Tm Vdc Vt
Idc It
Q/V Pt
P controls
controls Qt

Pitch

44 ECE 760: DER and RES

WG Controls
• Depend on technology:
• Type 1/A: Only slow pitch controls to keep torque and/or
turbine speed at rated values and/or within limits to avoid
turbine problems.
• Type 2/B: Slow pitch control plus some fast P control through
variable resistors.
• Type 3/C: Slow pitch control plus fast P and Q/V control
through rotor ac-dc-ac converter.
• Type 4/D: Slow pitch control plus fast P and Q/V control
through full ac-dc-ac converter interface.

45 ECE 760: DER and RES

WG Controls
• Type 3/C and 4/D P control:
• MPPT based on:

• MPPT deactivated for some frequency control, de-rating (de-

loading) the WG.

46 ECE 760: DER and RES

WG Controls
• Virtual Inertia Control (VIC)
for Types 3/C and 4/D WGs:
• Different from de-rating (de-
loading)
plus droop control.
• MPPT is maintained.
• Takes advantage of wind
turbines’ inertia.

47 ECE 760: DER and RES

RES Simplified Models
• Simplified model, based
on WECC wind generator
phasor (average) model:

• V and f droop controls for

this model:

48 ECE 760: DER and RES

BESS Examples
PCC Voltage Source Converter Bi-directional buck boost Battery

• Papers:
ref
vac

• F. Calero, C. A. Cañizares,
Converter
Controller
vac
and K. Bhattacharya, “Detailed

mq
md
iac idc

and Average Battery Energy

Grid RBatt VB att
Vdc

+
Storage Model Comparison,”
-
Lac Rac

Proc. IEEE-PES Innovative VDC u

Smart Grid Technologies

DC to AC Converter
ref
Controller

(ISGT) Europe, October 2019,

VD C

5 pages.
• F. Calero, C. A. Cañizares,
and K. Bhattacharya,
“Dynamic Modeling of Battery
Energy Storage and
Applications in Transmission
Systems,” IEEE Transactions
on Power Systems, August
2020, 11 pages.

49 ECE UF Seminar, Hispanic Heritage Month, September 17, 2020

BESS Examples

50 ECE UF Seminar, Hispanic Heritage Month, September 17, 2020

SPVG Example 1
• D. Remon, C. A. • Northern Chile:
Cañizares, and P.
Rodriguez, “Impact of
100-MW-scale PV Plants
with Synchronous Power
Controllers on Power
System Stability in
Northern Chile,” IET
Generation, Transmission
& Distribution, vol. 11, no.
11, November 2017, pp.
2958-2964.
51 ECE 760: DER and RES
SPVG Example 1
• Freq. response to generator loss for SPVG with PQ
control (IPT) and SPC:

52 ECE 760: DER and RES

SPVG Example 1
• Freq. response to load loss for SPVG with PQ control
(IPT) and SPC:

53 ECE 760: DER and RES

SPVG Example 2
• B. Tamimi, C. A.
Cañizares, and K.
Bhattacharya, “System
Stability Impact of Large-
scale and Distributed
Solar Photovoltaic
Generation: The Case of
Ontario, Canada,” IEEE
Transactions on
Sustainable Energy, vol.
4, no. 3, July 2013, pp.
680-688.
54 ECE 760: DER and RES
SPVG Example 2
• Ontario system study:
• 2975 buses and 4205 branches.
• There different voltage levels ranging from 4kV to 500kV.
• The total demand in the system model is around 25GW (summer peak).
• Generator dynamic models: sixth-order synchronous machine model with a
third-order IEEE type AC4A excitation system.
• Loads are assumed to be constant impedance and fixed power loads for
transient stability and voltage stability studies, respectively.
• A large, centralized solar PV farm with PV controls is assumed in Sarnia,
close to the Lambton coal-fired power station, consistent with the 80MW
Sarnia SPVG plant.
• Distributed solar PV rooftop units in the GTA are also considered.
• The planned retirement of all Lambton units (4x490MW) by 2014 is assumed
to be replaced by SPVG.
• A fault in a 500kV line from Bruce to Milton is considered as the contingency
for time-domain simulations.

55 ECE 760: DER and RES

SPVG Example 2
• Eigenvalue studies: no major difference between centralized
SPVG (C-SPVG) and decentralized SPVG (D-SPVG)

56 ECE 760: DER and RES

SPVG Example 2
• Voltage stability:
• GTA is the “sink” and Ontario’s generators are the “sources”, including SPVG.
• D-SPVG is significantly better than C-SPVG, which is to be expected.
• Loadability margins can be given a monetary value based on Ontario’s Long Run
Marginal Cost (LRMC).

57 ECE 760: DER and RES

SPVG Example 2
• Transient stability: CCT for considered contingency
increases significantly with D-SPVG compared to C-
SPVG, which is also to be expected.

58 ECE 760: DER and RES

SPVG Example 2
• Form the stability point of view:
• Decentralized (rooftop) is better than centralized (farms)
solar PV, since it’s equivalent to reducing system load.
• Voltage control is better than power factor control.
• Solar PV output variations are less than wind and easier
to forecast.
• The issue with decentralized is the integration of these
sources into the distribution system (e.g. reverse power
and feeder voltage issues).

59 ECE 760: DER and RES

WG Example
• M. H. Ravanji, C. A. Cañizares, and N. Parniani, “Modeling and Control of
Variable Speed Wind Turbine Generators for Frequency Regulation,” IEEE
Transactions on Sustainable Energy, vol. 11, no. 2, April 2020, pp. 916-
927.
• Modified 2-area systems:

60 ECE 760: DER and RES

WG Example
• Load increases at Bus 8 for 7 m/s wind speed, with the
VIC WG stalling for the largest load change:

61 ECE 760: DER and RES

WG Example
• With improved tuned VIC at 7 and 11 m/s wind speeds
for a 300 MW load increase at Bus 8:

62 ECE 760: DER and RES