PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

LEARNING
MODULE 05:
Engine Operating
Fundamentals –
Computational Method

POWERPLANT 1 –
RECIPROCATING ENGINE

Prepared by:
ENGR. RAYNALDO P. MONGAYA
ENGR. SONNY CAC JR.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
REVIEW OF THERMODYNAMICS (CYCLE ANALYSIS) 5
THE CARNOT CYCLE 12
THE AIR STANDARD-OTTO CYCLE 17
THE AIR STANDARD-DIESEL CYCLE 19
THE AIR STANDARD-BRAYTON CYCLE 23
THE WANKEL ENGINE CYCLE 27
WORK-POWER CONSIDERATIONS 30
ENGINE EFFICIENCY 35
REFERENCES 40

TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Reading Materials Time
REVIEW OF THERMODYNAMICS (CYCLE ANALYSIS) 10 Minutes
THE CARNOT CYCLE 15 Minutes
THE AIR STANDARD-OTTO CYCLE 15 Minutes
THE AIR STANDARD-DIESEL CYCLE 15 Minutes
THE AIR STANDARD-BRAYTON CYCLE 15 Minutes
THE WANKEL ENGINE CYCLE 15 Minutes
WORK-POWER CONSIDERATIONS 30 Minutes
ENGINE EFFICIENCY 30 Minutes
Activities
Introductory Activity (Crossword Puzzle) 15 Minutes
Problem Solving No. 1 30 Minutes
Problem Solving No. 2 45 Minutes
Problem Solving No. 3 60 Minutes
Problem Solving No. 4 45 Minutes

Honesty Pledge
“I affirm that I will not give or receive any unauthorized help
on this module activities, and that all work will be my own
understanding in each topic content and discussion”

Signature over Printed Name

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
This module discusses the introduction to Cycle Analysis of thermodynamics which
provides an application of cycle to simple heat engine such as internal combustion
engine and external combustion engine. One of the basic elements impacting the
engine performance is the particular fuel utilization and engine efficiency that some
way or another examine in the later aspect of this module.
LEARNING OUTCOMES

Course Learning Outcomes [CLO]

CLO 2. Explain the principles of operation, Module Learning Outcomes [MLO]

design features, and construction of the
various types of reciprocating engines.
Describe the classification methods, and
firing orders of reciprocating engines.
CLO 3. Apply the design principles and
operation of reciprocating engines to the
context of inspection, service, and repair of
reciprocating engine.
CLO 4. Identify the purpose and operation of
the different systems in a reciprocating
engine based in the approved Engine
Handbook and Manufacturer’s manual.
CLO 6. Derive the diagram of cycle analysis
to simple heat engine cycles to estimate
engine efficiency and work as a function of
pressures and temperatures at various
points in the cycle though worded problem
analysis
CLO 8. Review the physics of energy
transformation and factors affecting power
output to include engine performance
graphs. Compare the different grades of
fuel.
MLO 1. Analyze and solve the worded
problem of Otto, diesel, Wankel,
Carnot, and Brayton cycle.
MLO 2. Summarize the theoretical
knowledge of each cycle in
reciprocating engine
MLO 3. Define the Power Calculation
and Engine Efficiency of piston engine
through formula and solving problems.
Topic Learning Outcomes [TLO]
TLO1. Discuss the engine operating
fundamentals and cycle analysis
TLO2. Explain the main difference
between the theoretical and practical four
stroke piston engine cycles
TLO3. Define the term “specific fuel
consumption”, “engine efficiency”, and
“compression ratio”
TLO5. Analyze the energy transformation
from heat engine that converts the
chemical energy of fuel into heat energy.
TLO6. Illustrate the work-power
considerations by means of formula in
computing indicated horsepower, brake
horsepower, and friction horsepower.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
As an introductory activity, Complete the crossword by filling in a word that fits each
clue. Let’s see how well you remember some of the concepts discuss in your
thermodynamics course in just 15 minutes.

1 2

1. It is the ideal closed-system gas turbine cycle. It is characterized by constant-pressure

heat addition and heat rejection and isentropic compression and expansion processes.
2. He first observed that in steam engines no work could be produced unless there was
heat flow from a high-temperature reservoir to a low-temperature reservoir.
3. An internal combustion engine, generally a gasoline engine, where the combustion
process of the air-fuel mixture is ignited by a spark from a spark plug.
4. A device that operates in a thermodynamic cycle and does a certain amount of net
positive work through the transfer of heat from a high-temperature body to a low
temperature body.
5. He states that it is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and
produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from a cooler body to a hotter body
6. Law of Thermodynamics that states whenever energy is transferred, the value of
energy cannot be conserved and some energy must be permanently reduced to a
lower value.
7. Science of the relationship between heat, work, temperature, and energy. In broad
terms, thermodynamics deals with the transfer of energy from one place to another
and from one form to another.
8. An internal combustion engine in which ignition of the fuel is caused by the elevated
temperature of the air in the cylinder due to the mechanical compression (adiabatic
compression).

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

REVIEW OF THERMODYNAMICS (CYCLE ANALYSIS)

THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE

▪ Heat engine or thermal engine is a closed system (no mass crosses its
boundaries) that exchanges only heat and work with its surrounding and that
operates in cycles.
▪ Elements of a thermodynamics heat engine, with a fluid as the working
substance:
1. A working substance, matter that receives heat, rejects heat, and does work;
2. A source of heat (also called a hot body, a heat reservoir, or just source), from
which the working substance receives heat;
3. A heat sink (also called a receiver, a cold body, or just sink), to which the
working substance can reject heat; and
4. An engine, wherein the working substance may do work or have work done on
it.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

The various quantities shown on the figure are as follows:

𝑄𝑖𝑛 = amount of heat supplied to steam in boiler from a high-temperature source
(furnace)
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = amount of heat rejected from steam in condenser to a low temperature sink.
𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 = amount of work delivered by steam as it expands in turbine
𝑊𝑖𝑛 = amount of work required to compress water to boiler pressure
A thermodynamics cycle has special usefulness when we consider the
generation of power, the transformation of heat into work on a continuous basis.
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

▪ The net-cycle heat term is the algebraic sum of the heat

supplied, which is positive, and the heat rejected, which is
negative. Thus, the net-cycle work becomes
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 = 𝑸𝒊𝒏 − 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕

▪ Physically these terms represent the net-work produced by a

power cycle, such as the electrical energy generated or the
horsepower produced. The heat is supplied by such energy
sources as the combustion of oil or coal, or a nuclear reaction.
▪ Often, we are interested in how efficiently power is produced,
how well we are converting heat into work. The efficiency, 𝜂,
is the output, or desired effect, divided by the input, or cost of
Figure 1 represents achieving that effect, or
the schematic of a 𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕
𝜼=
possible power- 𝑸𝒊𝒏
producing cycle.
Notice that we do not ▪ Since the net-cycle work can be expressed in terms of heat
need to know about all from equation 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 , the efficiency may also
the processes within be expressed in terms of only heat terms;
the cycle to perform 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂=
an overall analysis, 𝑄𝑖𝑛
just the flow of work
and heat energy 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝜼= 𝟏−
crossing the system 𝑸𝒊𝒏
boundary
▪ A thermodynamic cycle occurs when the working fluid of a
system experiences a number of processes that eventually
return the fluid to its initial state.
▪ Available energy is that part of the heat that was converted
into mechanical work
▪ Unavailable energy is the remainder of the heat that had to be
rejected into the receiver (sink)

LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

In reciprocating engine, we focus in the second law of thermodynamics only as applied

to heat engine. Remember that the purpose of the second law is to give a sense of
direction to energy-transfer processes. Consolidating this with the primary law gives
us the data important to examined vitality move measures.
The second law of thermodynamics states: Whenever energy is transferred, the
value of energy cannot be conserved and some energy must be permanently
reduced to a lower value.

Nicolas Carnot initially saw that in steam motors no work could

be delivered except if there was heat stream from a high-
temperature store to a low-temperature supply. He further
noticed that the work delivered was an element of the
temperature distinction between the stores and was more
prominent for a more noteworthy temperature contrast.
He established the frameworks of a completely new order,
thermodynamics. Carnot's work pulled in little consideration
during his lifetime, yet it was later utilized by Rudolf Clausius
and Lord Kelvin to formalize the second law of thermodynamics
and characterize the idea of entropy.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

The Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law is: No cyclic process is possible
whose sole result is the flow of heat from a single heat reservoir and the performance
of an equivalent amount of work.

The Clausius statement: It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle

and produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from a cooler body to a hotter
body

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

A heat engine might be characterized as a device that

works in a thermodynamic cycle and does a specific
measure of net positive work through the exchange of
heat from a high-temperature body to a low-
temperature body.
Regularly the term heat engine is utilized from a more
extensive perspective to incorporate all devices that
produce work, either through heat transfer or through
burning (combustion), despite the fact that the device
doesn't work in a thermodynamic cycle.
The internal combustion engine and the gas turbine
are instances of such devices, and calling them heat
engines is a satisfactory utilization of the term.

Heat engines differ enormously fit as a fiddle, from huge steam engines, gas turbines,
or jet engines, to fuel engines (gasoline engines) for vehicles and diesel motors for
trucks or cars, to a lot of littler motors for grass cutters or hand-held gadgets, for
example, cutting apparatuses or trimmers.
Ranging these values for the thermal efficiency of real engines are around 35–half for
large power plants, 30–35% for gasoline engines, and 30–40% for diesel engines

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
Example Problem 1:
An auto automobile engine produces 136 hp on the output shaft with a thermal
efficiency of 30%. The fuel it burns gives 35 000 kJ/kg as energy added. Find the total
energy added (Qin) to the ambient and the rate of fuel consumption in kg/s.
Given: Solution: Solution:
746 𝑊
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 136 hp 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 136 hp ∗ 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 ∗ 𝑞
1 ℎ𝑝
𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝜂 = 30% 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 101456 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑞
𝑘𝐽
𝑞 = 35000 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐽
𝜂= 338186.6667
𝑠
𝑄𝑖𝑛 mass flow = 𝐽
35000000
𝑘𝑔𝑚
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝒌𝒈𝒎
𝜂
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟔𝟐𝟒𝟕𝟔𝟏𝟗 𝒔
101456 𝑊
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 0.30

𝑸𝒊𝒏 = 𝟑𝟑𝟖𝟏𝟖𝟔. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝑾

PROBLEM SOLVING NO. 1

Before we continue with our conversation, how about we check how well you have
perceived the conversation up until now. Tackle the worded problems below with
complete dimensional analysis for an 30minutes.
1. If heat absorbed by the engine (Q1) = 10,000 Joule, what is the work done by
the Carnot Engine? Given that Low Temperature (T2) = 400 K and High
Temperature (T1) = 800 K. (Ans. 5000 Joule)
2. A Carnot engine absorbs heat at high temperature 800 Kelvin and efficiency of
the Carnot engine is 50%. What is the high temperature to increase efficiency
to 80% if the low temperature kept constant? (Ans. 2000 K)
3. An auto automobile engine produces 150 hp on the output shaft with a thermal
efficiency of 40%. The fuel it burns gives 35 000 ft.lbf/lbm as energy added.
Find the total energy added (Qin) to the ambient and the rate of fuel
consumption in lbm/s.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

THE CARNOT CYCLE

The important point to be made here is that the Carnot Cycle, regardless of what the working
substance may be, always has the same four basic processes. These processes are:
1. A reversible isothermal process in which heat is transferred to or from the high
temperature reservoir.
2. A reversible adiabatic process in which the temperature of the working fluid decreases
from the high temperature to the low temperature.
3. A reversible isothermal process in which heat is transferred to or from the low
temperature reservoir.
4. A reversible adiabatic process in which the temperature of the working fluid increases
from the low temperature to the high temperature.

Formula Analysis of Carnot Cycle

𝑸𝒊𝒏 = 𝑻𝟏 (𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 ), area 1-2-n-m-1

𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑻𝟑 (𝑺𝟒 − 𝑺𝟑 ), area 3-4-m-n-3
−𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑇3 (𝑆3 − 𝑆4 ) = −𝑇3(𝑆2 − 𝑆1)
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑇1 (𝑆2 − 𝑆1 ) −𝑇3(𝑆2 − 𝑆1 )
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟑 )(𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 ), area 1-2-3-4-1
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝜂=
𝑄𝑖𝑛

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝜂=
𝑄𝑖𝑛

(𝑇1 −𝑇3 )(𝑆2 −𝑆1 )

𝜂=
𝑇1 (𝑆2 −𝑆1 )
𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟑
𝜼=
𝑻𝟏

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐓𝐒 𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐞

𝑽𝟐
𝑸𝒊𝒏 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻𝟏 𝒍𝒏
𝑽𝟏
𝑽𝟒 𝑽𝟑
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻𝟑 𝒍𝒏 = −𝒎𝑹𝑻𝟑 𝒍𝒏
𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟒
From process 2-3,
𝑻𝟑 𝑽𝟐 𝜸−𝟏
=[ ]
𝑻𝟐 𝑽𝟑
From process 4-1,
𝑻𝟒 𝑽𝟏 𝜸−𝟏
=[ ]
𝑻𝟏 𝑽𝟒
But 𝑻𝟒 = 𝑻𝟑 and 𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻𝟐
𝑽 𝜸−𝟏 𝑽 𝜸−𝟏
Therefore, [ 𝟐 ] = [ 𝟏]
𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟒
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟐
Then, = ; so, =
𝑽𝟒 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟒 𝑽𝟏

The 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 can be;

𝑽𝟐
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝒎𝑹𝑻𝟑 𝒍𝒏
𝑽𝟏
𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻𝟏 𝒍𝒏 −𝒎𝑹𝑻𝟑 𝒍𝒏
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏
𝑽𝟐
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟑 )𝒎𝑹 𝒍𝒏
𝑽𝟏
𝑽
(𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟑 )𝒎𝑹 𝒍𝒏 𝑽𝟐
𝟏
𝜂= 𝑽
𝒎𝑹𝑻𝟏 𝒍𝒏 𝑽𝟐
𝟏

𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟑
𝜼=
𝑻𝟏

Work from the pV plane

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∑ 𝑊 = 𝑊1−2 + 𝑊2−3 + 𝑊3−4 + 𝑊4−1
𝑽𝟐 𝒑𝟑 𝑽𝟑 −𝒑𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟒 𝒑𝟏 𝑽𝟏 −𝒑𝟒 𝑽𝟒
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝒑𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝒍𝒏 + + 𝒑𝟑 𝑽𝟑 𝐥𝐧 +
𝑽𝟏 𝟏−𝜸 𝑽𝟑 𝟏−𝜸

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE

The work for the Carnot Engine may be evaluated by equation;
𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟑
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻𝟏 𝒍𝒏 −𝒎𝑹𝑻𝟑 𝒍𝒏
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟒

However, it is sometimes convenient to have another means of evaluation a engine.

One such indicator is the mean effective pressure, 𝒑𝒎 , an imaginary pressure
developed by equating the cycle work to an equivalent work:
3 3
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉 = 𝑝𝑚 ∫ 𝑑𝑉
1 1

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑝𝑚 ∗ 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑉𝐷 )

𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕
𝒑𝒎 =
𝑽𝑫
The mean effective pressure is equal to the net cycle work divided by the piston
displacement volume.
The figure illustrates the p-V diagram for the Carnot engine. The shaded rectangular
area is the same area as that enclosed by the Carnot engine, but it is characterized
by a mean effective pressure. The higher the mean effective pressure is, the greater
will be the force per cycle and the work output per cycle
The mean effective pressure is the average constant pressure that, acting through one
stroke, will do on the piston the net-work of a single cycle.
Problem Solving Tips;
Here are a couple of general tips on the most proficient method to tackle problems.
These can be helpful while concentrating to increment perception and general critical
thinking aptitudes:
1. Have a positive attitude. Take the time to fully work out the hard and lengthy
questions. Don’t give up! The more you work on a problem, the better you will
understand it.
2. Draw diagrams or flow charts, or make summaries if needed. In order to
organize given information, arrange everything in a systematic way that you
can easily see. It may help you to find the path you should take to solve a
problem.
3. Attempt to connect data together. See what data is given and choose if it’s
significant and how it very well may be identified with conditions and the
appropriate response you’re attempting to discover.
4. Be aware of irrelevant information – it may be given to throw you off!
5. Use memory techniques. For some students, mnemonics are great tools for
memorizing equations, definitions, formulas, processes, etc.
6. Abstain from speculating. Work an issue through from start to finish. Guessing
can be dangerous and is not recommended.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

PROBLEM SOLVING NO. 2

Directions: Solve the work problems using the formula sheet, show your work to
receive full credit. Box your final answer and record its appropriate units. Answer the
following in span of 45 minutes.
1. A heat engine operates on the Carnot cycle. It produces 50 kW of power while
operating between temperature limits of 800 deg C and 100 deg C. Determine
the engine efficiency and the amount of heat added.
2. A six-cylinder engine with a 4x4-in bore and stroke operates on the Carnot
cycle. It receives 51 Btu/cycle of heat at 1040 deg F and rejects heat at 540
deg F while running at 300 rpm. Determine the mean effective pressure, hp,
and heat flow out of the engine.
3. A Carnot engine uses 0.05 kgm of air as the working substance. The
temperature limits of the cycle are 300 K and 940 K, the maximum pressure is
8.4 Mpa, and the heat added per cycle is 4.2 kJ. Determine the temperature,
pressure, and volume at each state of the cycle.
4. A Carnot power cycle operates on 2 lbm of air between the limits of 70 deg F
and 500 deg F. The pressure at the beginning of isothermal expansion is 400
psia and at the end of isothermal expansion is 185 psig. Determine (a) the
volume at the end of isothermal compression, (b) ∆𝑆 during an isothermal
process, (c) 𝑄𝑖𝑛 , (d) 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 , (e) 𝑊, (f) 𝜂 , and (g) the mean effective pressure.

15 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

OTTO AND DIESEL CYCLE

Both Otto's and Diesel's engine work on open cycles. The results of burning leaving
the engine can't be persistently reused in a shut framework. Natural air must be
attracted.
Many spark-ignition and compression-ignition engines operate on a four-stroke cycle.

16 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
The air-standard Otto cycle has the following processes:
1. Starting with the piston at bottom dead center, compression proceeds
isentropically from state 1 to state 2
2. Heat is added at constant volume from state 2 to state 3
3. Expansion occurs isentropically from state 3 to state 4
4. Heat is rejected at constant volume from state 4 to state 1

Formula Analysis of Otto Cycle

The thermal efficiency is defined as the work produced (the desired effect) divided by
the heat added (what is costs to achieve that effect)
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕
𝜼=
𝑸𝒊𝒏
The heat is added at constant volume from state 2 to state 3. Since the system is
closed, because the mass is constant, the first law tells us that
𝑸𝒊𝒏 = 𝑸𝟐−𝟑 = 𝑼𝟑 − 𝑼𝟐
𝑸𝒊𝒏 = 𝒎𝒄𝒗 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 )
The heat is rejected at constant volume from state 4 to state 1. The first law
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑸𝟒−𝟏 = 𝑼𝟏 − 𝑼𝟒
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝒎𝒄𝒗 (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟒 )
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝒎𝒄𝒗 (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏 )
Substituting equations (𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )) and (𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )) to equation
𝑊
(𝜂 = 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 ) yields
𝑖𝑛

𝒎𝒄𝒗 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 ) − 𝒎𝒄𝒗 (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏 )

𝜼=
𝒎𝒄𝒗 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 )
𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏
𝜼=𝟏−
𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐
The compression ratio, 𝑟𝛾 , defined as
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝑩𝑫𝑪
𝒓𝜸 =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝑻𝑫𝑪
And for the Otto cycle this becomes
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟒
𝒓𝜸 = =
𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟑

17 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
Also, the temperature is related by an isentropic process between state 1 and state 2,
so
𝑻𝟐 𝜸−𝟏
= (𝒓𝜸 )
𝑻𝟏
And, similarly,
𝑻𝟑 𝜸−𝟏
= (𝒓𝜸 )
𝑻𝟒

so
𝑻𝟑 𝑻𝟐
=
𝑻𝟒 𝑻𝟏
Derivation of the formula for 𝜼
𝑇3 𝛾−1
= (𝑟𝛾 )
𝑇4
𝜸−𝟏
𝑻𝟑 = (𝒓𝜸 ) 𝑻𝟒
𝑇2 𝛾−1
= (𝑟𝛾 )
𝑇1
𝜸−𝟏
𝑻𝟐 = (𝒓𝜸 ) 𝑻𝟏

Substituting equations to get 𝜼 , we have;

𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏
𝜼=𝟏−
𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐
𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏
𝜼=𝟏− 𝜸−𝟏 𝜸−𝟏
((𝒓𝜸 ) 𝑻𝟒 ) − ((𝒓𝜸 ) 𝑻𝟏 )
𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏
𝜼=𝟏− 𝜸−𝟏
(𝒓𝜸 ) (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏 )
𝟏
𝜼=𝟏− 𝜸−𝟏
(𝒓𝜸 )

The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle is a function of the compression ratio only. As
the compression ratio increases, the efficiency increases.
In an actual engine the compression is limited by the temperature at state 2. If this
temperature is too great, the gasoline-air mixture will ignite spontaneously and at the
incorrect time.

18 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
The thermal efficiency of the theoretical Otto cycle is
1. Increased by increase in 𝒓𝜸

2. Increased by increase in 𝜸
3. Independent of the heat added
Work from the pV plane
𝒑𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝒑𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝒑𝟒 𝑽𝟒 − 𝒑𝟑 𝑽𝟑
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = ∑ 𝑾 = +
𝟏−𝜸 𝟏−𝜸
Clearance volume, per cent clearance
𝑽𝑩𝑫𝑪 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝑪 + 𝑽𝑫 𝑽𝑫 + 𝒄𝑽𝑫
𝒓𝜸 = = = =
𝑽𝑻𝑫𝑪 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝑪 𝒄𝑽𝑫
𝟏+𝒄
𝒓𝜸 =
𝒄
Where; 𝒄 = percent clearance
𝑽𝑪 = clearance volume
𝑽𝑫 = displacement volume

AIR-STANDARD DIESEL CYCLE

19 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

The process in the air-standard Diesel cycle are

1. Starting with the piston at bottom dead center, compression occurs
isentropically from state 1 to state 2
2. Heat is added at constant pressure from state 2 to state 3
3. Expansion occurs isentropically from state 3 to state 4
4. Heat rejection occurs at constant volume from state 4 to state 1

Formula Analysis of Diesel Cycle

Let us calculate the thermal efficiency for the Diesel cycle. To accomplish this, we
must find the expressions for the heat supplied and heat rejected.
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕
𝜼=
𝑸𝒊𝒏
The heat supplied is at constant pressure, and for a closed system the first law tells
us that

𝑸𝒊𝒏 = 𝑸𝟐−𝟑 = 𝑯𝟑 − 𝑯𝟐
𝑸𝒊𝒏 = 𝒎𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 )
The heat rejection occurs at constant volume, and the first law for a closed system
tells us that
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑸𝟒−𝟏 = 𝑼𝟏 − 𝑼𝟒
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝒎𝒄𝒗 (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏 )
Substituting equations to get the thermal efficiency, we have
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕
𝜼=
𝑸𝒊𝒏

20 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
𝒎𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 ) − 𝒎𝒄𝒗 (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏 )
𝜼=
𝒎𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 )
𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏
𝜼=𝟏−
𝜸(𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 )
Because the cycle is not symmetrical, the expression for the thermal efficiency cannot
𝑽 𝑽
be further reduced as can that for the Otto cycle. We not that 𝑽𝟏 ≠ 𝑽𝟒 .
𝟐 𝟑

The thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle is slightly less than that of the Otto
cycle for the same heat addition.
This is because part of the expansion process is occurring while heat is being added
in the Diesel cycle, whereas the expansion of air in the Otto cycle occurs after all the
heat is added.
An important factor favoring diesels, however is that the compression ratio can be
much greater in the Diesel cycle than in the Otto cycle because only air, not air-fuel
mixture, being compressed.
For actual engines, the Diesel-cycle engine is more efficient than the Otto-cycle engine
because the possible compression ratio is greater.
Cutoff Ratio – another ratio used in describing Diesel engine performance. It is
defined as
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒓𝒄 =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑽𝟑
𝒓𝒄 =
𝑽𝟐
The cutoff percentage, 𝑹𝒄 , defined as
𝑽𝟑 − 𝑽𝟐
𝑹𝒄 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐
In an actual engine the cutoff ratio refers to the volume at the start of injection
compared to that at the end of fuel injection. It is also sometimes defined as the volume
change during injection (heat addition) divided by the displacement volume.
Derivation of the formula for 𝜼
Process 1-2:

𝑻𝟐 𝑽𝟏 𝜸−𝟏
=( )
𝑻𝟏 𝑽𝟐
𝜸−𝟏
𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻𝟏 (𝒓𝜸 )

21 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
Process 2-3:
𝑻𝟑 𝑽𝟑
= = 𝒓𝒄
𝑻𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑻𝟑 = 𝑻𝟐 𝒓𝒄
𝜸−𝟏
𝑻𝟑 = 𝑻𝟏 (𝒓𝜸 ) ∙ 𝒓𝒄

Process 3-4:
𝜸−𝟏
𝑻𝟒 𝑽𝟑 𝜸−𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝒓𝒄 𝜸−𝟏 𝒓𝒄
=( ) =[ ] = 𝜸−𝟏
𝑻𝟑 𝑽𝟒 𝑽𝟏 𝒓𝜸
𝜸−𝟏
𝜸−𝟏 𝒓𝒄
𝑻𝟒 = 𝑻𝟏 (𝒓𝜸 ) ∙ 𝒓𝒄 ∙ [ ]
𝒓𝜸−𝟏
𝜸

𝜸
𝑻𝟒 = 𝑻𝟏 𝒓𝒄
𝑻 −𝑻
Substituting equations 𝑻𝟐 , 𝑻𝟑 , &𝑻𝟒 in equation 𝜼 = 𝟏 − 𝜸(𝑻𝟒 −𝑻𝟏 ), we have
𝟑 𝟐

𝜸
𝑻𝟏 𝒓𝒄 − 𝑻𝟏
𝜼= 𝟏− 𝜸−𝟏 𝜸−𝟏
𝜸((𝑻𝟏 (𝒓𝜸 ) ∙ 𝒓𝒄 ) − 𝑻𝟏 (𝒓𝜸 )
𝜸
𝒓𝒄 − 𝟏
𝜼=𝟏−
𝜸𝒓𝜸−𝟏
𝜸 (𝒓𝒄 − 𝟏)
𝜸
𝟏 𝒓𝒄 − 𝟏
𝜼 = 𝟏 − 𝜸−𝟏 [ ]
𝒓𝜸 𝜸(𝒓𝒄 − 𝟏)

As the cutoff ratio increases, there is more power. This means there is a longer period
of heat addition or, in an actual engine, a longer period of fuel injection, and hence
more energy input. However, there is a limit to 𝒓𝒄 . If the cutoff percentage is more than
10% of the stroke, smoking tends to occur in an actual engine because there is not
sufficient time for the combustion process to be completed before the exhaust valve
opens.
The efficiency of the Diesel cycle differs from that of the Otto cycle by the bracketed
𝜸
𝒓𝒄 −𝟏
factor . This factor is always greater than 1, because 𝒓𝒄 is always greater than
𝜸(𝒓𝒄 −𝟏)
1.
For a particular compression ratio 𝒓𝜸 , the Otto cycle is more efficient.

An actual Diesel engine with a compression ratio of 15 is more efficient than an actual
Otto engine with compression ratio of 9.

22 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
Relation among 𝒓𝜸 , 𝒓𝒄 , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒓𝒆 (𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐)
𝑽𝟒 𝑽𝟏
𝒓𝒆 = =
𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟑
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟏
𝒓𝜸 = = [ ][ ]
𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟑
𝒓𝜸 = 𝒓𝒄 𝒓𝒆

Develop the air-standard Brayton-cycle model

The air-standard Brayton cycle is the ideal closed-system gas turbine cycle. It is
characterized by constant-pressure heat addition and heat rejection and
isentropic compression and expansion processes.
Air is the working fluid and may be considered an ideal gas.

1 - 2 Adiabatic, quasi-static (or reversible) compression in the inlet and

compressor;
2 - 3 Constant pressure fuel combustion (idealized as constant pressure heat
addition);
3 - 4 Adiabatic, quasi-static (or reversible) expansion in the turbine and exhaust
nozzle, with which we
4 - 1 Cool the air at constant pressure back to its initial condition (constant pressure
rejection of heat)

23 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

Formula Analysis of Brayton Cycle

The thermal efficiency, 𝜼, of the Brayton cycle may be found as:
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝑸𝒊𝒏 − 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝜼= = = 𝟏−
𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝑸𝒊𝒏
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝜼= 𝟏−
𝑸𝒊𝒏
But
𝑸𝒊𝒏 = 𝑸𝟐−𝟑 = 𝑯𝟑 − 𝑯𝟐
𝑸𝒊𝒏 = 𝒎𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 )

And
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑸𝟒−𝟏 = 𝑯𝟏 − 𝑯𝟒
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝒎𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟒 )

𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝒎𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏 )

Therefore, we have
𝒎𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏 )
𝜼=𝟏−
𝒎𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 )
𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏
𝜼=𝟏−
𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐
Pressure ratio, 𝒓𝒑 , is defined as
𝒑𝟐
𝒓𝒑 =
𝒑𝟏
And from isentropic expansion and compression processes, we find that
𝜸−𝟏 𝜸−𝟏 𝜸−𝟏
𝑻𝟐 𝒑𝟐 𝜸 𝑻𝟑 𝒑𝟑 𝜸 𝒑𝟐 𝜸
=[ ] and =[ ] =[ ]
𝑻𝟏 𝒑𝟏 𝑻𝟒 𝒑𝟒 𝒑𝟏
Thus the equation for thermal efficiency can be derive in terms of pressure ratio;
𝜸−𝟏
𝑻𝟐 𝒑𝟐 𝜸
=[ ]
𝑻𝟏 𝒑𝟏
𝑻𝟐 𝜸−𝟏
= [𝒓𝒑 ] 𝜸
𝑻𝟏
𝜸−𝟏
𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻𝟏 [𝒓𝒑 ] 𝜸

24 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
𝜸−𝟏 𝜸−𝟏
𝑻𝟑 𝒑𝟑 𝜸 𝒑𝟐 𝜸
=[ ] =[ ]
𝑻𝟒 𝒑𝟒 𝒑𝟏
𝜸−𝟏
𝑻𝟑 𝒑𝟐 𝜸
=[ ]
𝑻𝟒 𝒑𝟏
𝑻𝟑 𝜸−𝟏
= [𝒓𝒑 ] 𝜸
𝑻𝟒
𝜸−𝟏
𝑻𝟑 = 𝑻𝟒 [𝒓𝒑 ] 𝜸

Substituting equations (𝑻𝟑 ) and (𝑻𝟐 ) in thermal efficiency, we have

𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏
𝜼=𝟏−
𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐
𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏
𝜼=𝟏− 𝜸−𝟏 𝜸−𝟏
𝑻𝟒 [𝒓𝒑 ] 𝜸 − 𝑻𝟏 [𝒓𝒑 ] 𝜸

𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏
𝜼= 𝟏− 𝜸−𝟏
(𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏 )[𝒓𝒑 ] 𝜸

𝟏
𝜼= 𝟏− 𝜸−𝟏
[𝒓𝒑 ] 𝜸

Thus, for the Brayton cycle the thermal efficiency is a function of the pressure ratio,
𝒓𝒑 .

Total compressor work, 𝑾𝒄 = −𝒎𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )

Total turbine work, 𝑾𝒕 = −𝒎𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟑 ), 𝑾𝒕 = 𝒎𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟒 )

Net work, 𝑾 𝒐𝒓 𝑾𝑩 = 𝑾𝒕 − 𝑾𝒄

25 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

PROBLEM SOLVING NO. 3

Directions: Solve the work problems using the formula sheet, show your work to
receive full credit. Box your final answer and record its appropriate units. Answer the
following in span of 60 minutes.
1. An engine operates on the air-standard Otto cycle. The conditions at the start
of compression are 27 deg C and 100 kPa. The heat added is 1840 kJ/kg. The
compression ratio is 8. Determine the temperature and pressure at the end of
each process in the cycle, the thermal efficiency, and the mean effective
pressure.
2. An engine operates on the air-standard Diesel cycle. The conditions at the start
of compression are 27 deg C and 100 kPa. The heat supplied is 1840 kJ/kg,
and the compression ratio is 16. Determine the maximum temperature and
pressure, the thermal efficiency, and the mean effective pressure.
3. A four-cylinder engine with a 9.5 cm bore and an 8.75 cm stroke has a 7%
clearance. The engine rotates at 2500 rpm. The conditions at the beginning of
compression are 17 deg C and 98 kPa. The maximum cycle temperature is
2900 K. The engine may be assumed to operate on an air-standard Diesel
cycle. Determine the cycle work and the power produced by the engine.
4. An Otto cycle operates on 0.1 lbm/s of air from 13 psia and 130 deg F at the
beginning of compression. The temperature at the end of combustion is 5000
deg R; compression ratio is 5.5; 𝛾 = 1.3. Find (a) four cycle state points (b)
Compute Qin, Qout, Wnet, thermal efficiency and the corresponding Hp.
5. An air-standard Brayton cycle has air enter the compressor at 27 deg C and
100 kPa. The pressure ratio is 10, and the maximum allowable temperature in
the cycle is 1350 K. Determine the pressure and temperature at each state in
the cycle, and the compressor work, the turbine work, and the cycle efficiency
per kilogram of air.

26 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

ROTARY ENGINE - WANKEL ENGINE

The Wankel Engine is a sort of ICE utilizing an eccentric rotary design configuration
to change or convert pressure into a rotation energy motion.
Contrasted with the reciprocating engine, the Wankel engine has more uniform torque
force and less vibration and, for a given force, is more compact and weighs less.

The rotor, which makes the turning movement, is

comparative fit as a fiddle to a Reuleaux triangle, aside
from the sides have less arch. Wankel engines deliver
three power pulses per revolution of the rotor utilizing
the Otto cycle. As it may, the output shaft utilizes
toothed gearing to turn multiple times quicker giving
one power pulse per revolution.
The Wankel Engine has the benefits of compact
design and low weight over the more normal ICE,
which utilizes responding cylinders. These
preferences give rotating motor applications in an
assortment of vehicles and devices, including: cars,
bikes, dashing vehicles, airplane, go-karts, fly skis,
snowmobiles, cutting tools, and APU. Certain Wankel
engines have a power-to-weight ratio over one
horsepower per pound. Most engines of the design are
of spark ignition, with compression ignition engines
having been built only in research projects.

Schematic of the Wankel:

1. Intake
2. Exhaust
3. Stator housing
4. Chambers
5. Pinion
6. Rotor
7. Crown gear
8. Eccentric shaft
9. Spark plug

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
The most successful rotary engine is the Wankel engine. Developed by the German
engineer Felix Wankel in 1956, it has a disk that looks like a triangle with bulging sides
rotating inside a cylinder shaped like a figure eight with a thick waist. Intake and
exhaust are through ports in the flat sides of the cylinder. The spaces between the
sides of the disk and the walls of the cylinder form combustion pockets. During a single
rotation of the disk each pocket alternately grows smaller, then larger, because of the
contoured outline of the cylinder. This provides for compression and expansion. The
engine runs on a four-stroke cycle.

The Wankel rotary engine, a much more recent development, is said to have been
conceived in its present form in 1954. An implementation of the rotary engine used in
the 1990 Mazda RX-7 automobile. As of 1987, over 1.5 million Wankel engines had
been used in Mazda automobiles.
The rotary engine has a host of advantages that make it a formidable contender for
some of the tasks currently performed by reciprocating engines. The piston in a four
stroke-cycle reciprocating engine must momentarily come to rest four times per cycle
as its direction of motion changes. In contrast, the moving parts in a rotary engine are
in continuous unidirectional motion. Higher operating speeds, ease of balancing, and
absence of vibration are a few of the benefits. The high operating speeds allow the
engine to produce twice as much power as a reciprocating engine of the same weight.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
It has significantly fewer parts and occupies less volume than a reciprocating engine
of comparable power.
With all these advantages, why are there so few Wankel engines in service? Part of
the answer lies in the reciprocating engine’s remarkable success in so many
applications and its continuing improvement with research. Why change a good thing?
Manufacturing techniques for reciprocating engines are well known and established,
whereas production of rotary engines requires significantly different tooling. It must be
admitted, however, that the rotary engine has some drawbacks. A major problem of
the Wankel automobile engine is that it does not quite measure up to the fuel economy
of some automotive reciprocating SI engines. It is the judgment of some authorities
that it does not offer as great a potential for improvement in fuel economy and
emissions reduction as reciprocating and gas turbine engines. However, although the
rotary engine may never dominate the automotive industry, it is likely to find
applications where low weight and volume are critical, such as in sports cars, general
aviation, and motorcycles.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

WORK-POWER CONSIDERATIONS
All airplane engines are tested and evaluated by their capacity to accomplish work and
produce power. An engine's design and construction decide how viable it is in
converting a fuel's chemical energy to work and power. The accompanying
conversation gives a clarification of work and power just as a method for figuring both.
Furthermore, a few of the variables that influence an engine’s power capacity are
likewise examined.
WORK
If a force is applied to an object and the object moves, work is done. The amount of
work done is directly proportional to the force applied and the distance the object
moves. In mathematical terms, work is defined as the product of force times distance.
Work (W) = Force (F) x Distance (D)
Example:
If an engine weighing 400 pounds is lifted 10 feet, the work done is 4,000 foot-pounds.
Work = 400 pounds x 10 feet = 4,000 foot-pounds
If a force is applied to an object and the object does not move, no work is done. By
the same token, no work is done if an object moves with no force applied to it.

The work produced by an engine is used to turn

a propeller which, in turn, produces thrust to
move an aircraft. In addition, an engine does
work by turning electrical generators and
hydraulic pumps. When an engine drives an
alternator to produce the electricity that turns a
motor or drives a hydraulic pump to cycle
landing gear, the engine has performed work
because the force supplied by the engine
resulted in movement.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
POWER
Power is defined as the time-rate of doing work. In the English system, power is
expressed in foot-pounds per second, whereas the unit of power in the metric system
is joules per second.
When rating engines, power is a primary consideration because it represents how
quickly an engine-propeller combination can respond to power demands. Power is a
critical factor when determining whether or not an engine can deliver the force needed
to produce a specific amount of work in a given time. For example, a large airplane
needs more power to take off in the same distance as a small airplane because more
force is needed to accelerate a heavier object the same distance in the same amount
of time.
HORSEPOWER

Another unit of measure for power is the horse-power. Horsepower was first used by
James Watt to compare the performance of his steam engine with a typical English
dray horse. One horsepower is the amount of power required to do 33,000 foot-pounds
of work in one minute or 550 foot-pounds of work in one second. Therefore, the formula
used to calculate horsepower is:

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
ENGINE POWER:
IHP – INDICATED HORSEPOWER
BHP – BRAKE HORSEPOWER
FHP – FRICTION HORSEPOWER
Indicated ➢ Indicated horsepower (IHP) is the total power actually
Horsepower developed in an engine's cylinders without reference to friction
losses within the engine.
➢ To calculate indicated horsepower, the average effective
pressure within the cylinders must be known.
➢ This average pressure is referred to as indicated mean
effective pressure (IMEP)
𝑷𝑳𝑨𝑵𝑲
𝑰𝑯𝑷 =
𝟑𝟑, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
Where:
P = the Indicated Mean Effective Pressure, or IMEP inside the cylinder during a power
stroke.
L = the length of the stroke in feet or fractions of a foot.
A = the area of the piston head in square inches.
N = the number of power strokes per minute for one cylinder. On a four-stroke engine, this
is found by dividing the rpm by two.
K = the number of cylinders on the engine.

In the formula above, the area of the piston times the mean effective pressure provides the
force acting on the piston in pounds. This force multiplied by the length of the stroke in feet
results in the work performed in one power stroke, which, when multiplied by the number
of power strokes per minute, gives the number of foot-pounds per minute of work produced
by one cylinder. Multiplying this result by the number of cylinders in the engine gives the
amount of work performed, in foot-pounds, by the engine. Since horsepower is defined as
work done at the rate of 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, the total number of foot-pounds of
work performed by the engine is divided by 33,000 to find the indicated horsepower.
Example:
➢ Compute the indicated horsepower for a six-cylinder engine that has a bore of five
inches, a stroke of five inches, and is turning at 2,750 rpm with a measured IMEP of
125 psi per cylinder.

HP

Friction ➢ The power required to overcome the friction and energy losses
Horsepower is known as friction horsepower and is measured by driving an

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
engine with a calibrated motor and measuring power needed
to turn the engine at a given speed.
➢ The indicated horsepower calculation discussed in the
preceding topics is the theoretical power of a frictionless
engine. However, there is no such thing as a frictionless
engine.
➢ All engines require energy to draw a fuel/air charge into the
combustion chamber, compress it, and expel exhaust gases.
Furthermore, gears, pistons, and accessories create friction
that must be overcome. Engine lubrication is crucial in limiting
friction and wear, but friction cannot be completely eliminated.
Therefore, not all of the horsepower developed in an engine
goes to driving the propeller.

𝑰𝑯𝑷 = 𝑩𝑯𝑷 + 𝑭𝑯𝑷

Brake ➢ The actual amount of power delivered to the propeller shaft is
Horsepower called brake horsepower.
➢ One way to determine brake horsepower is to subtract an
engine's friction horsepower from its indicated horsepower.
➢ 85 – 90% of the IHP
➢ In practice, the measurement of an engine's brake horsepower
involves the measurement of a quantity known as torque, or
twisting moment. Torque is a measure of load and is properly
expressed in pound-inches or pound-feet.
There are various devices that are fit for estimating force, including the dynamometer and
torque meter. Early powerplant configuration engineers estimated brake strength utilizing a
Prony brake dynamometer, which comprises of a pivoted neckline, or brake, cinched to the
propeller shaft. The neckline goes about as a flexible grinding brake. An arm of a realized
length is inflexibly joined to the pivoted neckline and bears on a lot of scales. As the
propeller shaft pivots, it attempts to turn the brake which, thus, applies power to a scale.

Once the torque is known, the work done per revolution of the propeller shaft is computed
using the equation:
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟐𝑲 × 𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆
If the work per revolution is multiplied by the rpm, the result is work per minute, or power.
Since work is expressed in foot-pounds per minute, this quantity is divided by 33,000 to
arrive at an engine's brake horsepower. The resulting formula for calculating brake
horsepower is:

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method

On the off chance that the contact between the brake neckline and propeller shaft forces a
heap ceaselessly the motor, brake horsepower can be figured without knowing the measure
of friction between the neckline and drum. However long the torque increment is relative to
the rpm decline, the horsepower delivered at the shaft remains unchanged.

PISTON DISPLACEMENT
Piston displacement is characterized as the volume of air displaced by a piston as it
moves from bottom center to top center. To decide a piston's displacement, you should
increase the area of a cylinder head by the length of the cylinder stroke.
On the off chance that you review from your past study of arithmetic and the discussion
on indicated horsepower (PLANK), the area of a circle is determined with the equation:
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
For example, one cylinder of a four-cylinder aircraft engine has a bore, or diameter, of
four inches. What is the area of the piston head?
Bore = 4 inches
𝐴 = 𝜋22
= 3.1416 ∗ 4
= 12.56 𝑖𝑛2

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
Once the area of one piston is known, total piston displacement is calculated with the
formula:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴 × 𝐿 × 𝑁
Where:
A = area of piston head in square inches
L = length of the stroke in inches
N = number of cylinders

Using the example presented earlier, determine the total displacement if each of the
four cylinders has a stroke of six inches.
Area = 12.56 𝑖𝑛2
L = 6 in
N=4

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 12.56𝑖𝑛2 × 6 𝑖𝑛 × 4

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 301.44 𝑖𝑛3
The total engine displacement is 301.44 cubic inches. Since the amount of work done
by the expanding gases is determined in part by the piston area and the piston stroke,
it should be evident that increasing either the cylinder bore or the piston stroke
increases piston displacement.
ENGINE EFFICIENCY
Thermal Efficiency
Volumetric Efficiency
Mechanical Efficiency
Like a compressor, the function of the intake of stroke of the engine is to draw air into
the cylinder.

Volumetric Efficiency ➢ Describe how efficiently air is drawn into

the engine.
➢ The ideal volumetric efficiency,𝜼𝒗 , is the
ratio of the volume (mass) of air actually
drawn in divided by the maximum possible
amount of air that could be drawn, in the
displacement volume (mass). Either mass
or volume may be used in defining
volumetric efficiency, though volume is
used more frequently.
➢ Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the
volume of fuel and air an engine takes into
its cylinders to the total piston
displacement.
➢ For example, if an engine draws in a
volume of fuel and air that is exactly equal
to the engine's total piston displacement,
volumetric efficiency would be 100
percent.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
➢ The volumetric efficiency of most normally
aspirated engines is less than 100 percent.
➢ The reason for this is because bends,
surface roughness, and obstructions inside
the induction system slow the flow of air
which, in turn, reduces the air pressure
within the manifold.
➢ On the other hand, turbocharged engines
compress the air before it enters the
cylinders, and often have volumetric
efficiencies greater than 100 percent.

𝜂𝑣 = 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Notice that at top dead center some unburned gas remains and expands as the
piston moves downward, until the pressure in the cylinder is less than the intake
manifold pressure and air flows into the cylinder. Thus, the volume of the new air
charge for each intake stroke is 𝑉1 − 𝑉4 , while the piston displacement 𝑉𝑃𝐷 , is 𝑉1 −
𝑉3 . The volumetric efficiency is;

From definition of percentage of clearance, 𝑉3 = 𝑐𝑉𝑃𝐷 , noting that 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑃𝐷 + 𝑐𝑉𝑃𝐷 .

Substituting into equation will yields into;
1
𝜂𝑣 = 1 + 𝑐 − 𝑐(𝑝3 ⁄𝑝1 )𝜂

➢ Anything that decreases the density, or

volume of air entering a cylinder decreases
volumetric efficiency.
➢ Volumetric efficiency decreases as the
clearance increases and as the pressure at
top dead center increases.
➢ Some of the typical factors that affect
volumetric efficiency of a non-
turbocharged engine include:
1) Part throttle operation

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
2) Long, small diameter, intake pipes
3) Induction systems with sharp bends
4) High carburetor air temperatures
5) High cylinder head temperatures
6) Incomplete scavenging
7) Improper valve timing
8) Increases in altitude
➢ An engine's thermal efficiency is a ratio of
Thermal Efficiency the amount of heat energy converted to
useful work to the amount of heat energy
contained in the fuel used to support
combustion.
➢ In other words, thermal efficiency is a
measure of the inefficiencies experienced
when converting the heat energy in fuel to
work.
➢ For example, consider two engines that
produce the same amount of horsepower,
but consume different amounts of fuel. The
engine using less fuel converts a greater
portion of the available energy into useful
work and, therefore, has a higher thermal
efficiency.

THERMAL EFFICIENCY CHART

Friction
Losses
5%
Cooling Exhaust
System Gases
25% 40%

Useful
Work
30%

➢ Thermal efficiency can be calculated using

either brake or indicated horsepower. If
brake horsepower is used, the result is brake
thermal efficiency (BTE), and if indicated

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
horsepower is used, you get indicated
thermal efficiency (ITE).

Thermal Efficiencies are:

𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡⁄𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Since we are discussing two work terms, there are two thermal efficiencies. The
brake thermal efficiency, 𝜂𝑡𝑏 , is
𝜂𝑡𝑏 = 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘⁄𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
And the indicated thermal efficiency, 𝜂𝑡𝑖 , is
𝜂𝑡𝑏 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘⁄𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
The higher heating value of the fuel is typically used. There are many ways to relate
the various efficiencies by algebraic manipulation which is best left for the individual
problem.

Indicated Thermal Efficiency

= 𝐼𝐻𝑃 × 33000⁄𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐵𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛 × 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒(𝐵𝑇𝑈) × 778
Brake Thermal Efficiency
= 𝐵𝐻𝑃 × 33000⁄𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐵𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛 × 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒(𝐵𝑇𝑈) × 778
Note: Heat value in (BTU) = 1 pound of avgas contains 20,000 BTUs of heat energy

Example;
1. Determine the brake thermal efficiency of a piston engine that produces 150
brake horsepower while burning 8 gallons of aviation gasoline per hour

Mechanical Efficiency ➢ Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of brake

horsepower to indicated horsepower and
represents the percentage of power
developed in the cylinders that reaches
the propeller shaft.
➢ For example, if an engine develops 160
brake horsepower and 180 indicated
horsepower, the ratio of brake
horsepower to indicated horsepower is
160:180, which represents a mechanical
efficiency of 89 percent.
➢ The factor that has the greatest effect on
mechanical efficiency is the friction within
the engine itself. The friction between
moving parts in an engine remains
relatively consistent throughout an
engine's speed range. Therefore, the
mechanical efficiency of an engine is
highest when the engine is running at an

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
rpm that maximum brake horsepower is
developed.

The mechanical efficiency of an engine,𝜂𝑚 , is an indication of how well the engine

could convert the indicated work into brake work, or
𝜂𝑚 = 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘⁄𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝜂𝑚 = 𝐵𝐻𝑃⁄𝐼𝐻𝑃
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
For a reciprocating engine, specific fuel consumption (commonly abbreviated as SFC)
is defined as the weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time. Please
take note that the reciprocating engines are rated in terms of horsepower, and the
common units (although inconsistent) of specific fuel consumption are
𝒍𝒃 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍
𝑺𝑭𝑪 =
(𝒃𝒉𝒑)(𝒉)

PROBLEM SOLVING NO. 4

Problem Solving: Solve the worded problems using the formula sheet, show your work
to receive full credit. Box your final answer and record its appropriate units. Answer
the following in span of 45 minutes.
1. A four-stroke cycle, 4-cylinder reciprocating engine with a speed of 1800 rpm has
a stroke of 8.0 inches and a cylinder bore diameter of 6 inches. The mean
effective pressure inside the cylinder is 200 psi and the mechanical efficiency of
the engine is 80 %. Determine:
a. Piston displacement
b. No. of cycles per minute
c. IHP
d. BHP
e. FHP
2. Compute the horsepower output of the following describe engine operating at 2000
rpm, bore 3.5 in., stroke 4.0 in., 6 cylinders, 140 psi BMEP.
3. Compute the piston displacement of a radial engine having 9 cylinders, a bore of
5 in. and stroke of 5 in.
4. Compute the compression ratio of an engine which has a bore of 5 in. and a stroke
of 5 in. when the volume at the combustion chamber is 16.36 cu.in. with the piston
at TDC
5. Compute the BMEP of an engine when the output is 450 hp, 2300 rpm, bore and
stroke are each 5.5 in, and with 9 cylinders.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Engine Operating Fundamentals – Computational Method
REFERENCES:
B., S. M. H. (1989). Thermodynamics 1. Mandaluyong City: National Book Store.
Borgnakke, C., & Sonntag, R. E. (2019). Fundamentals of thermodynamics. Hoboken,
NJ: Wiley.
Burghardt, M. D. (1982). Engineering thermodynamics with applications. New York:
Harper & Row.
Rathakrishnan, E. (2019). Applied gas dynamics. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
J.D. Naber, J.E. Johnson, in Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicle Technologies for
Improved Environmental Performance, 2014
JOHN B. HEYWOOD, in Energy and Combustion Science, 1979
UFV October 2010, Learning Services, The Learning Commons, Problem Solving
Exams
Web Local, Chapter 7, The Wankel Rotary Engine,
http://www.personal.utulsa.edu/~kenneth-weston/chapter7.pdf
Taylan Ercan, Thermodynamics and Structural Design and Analysis of A Novel Turbo
Rotary Engine, September 2005
Jeppesen’s A&P Technician Powerplant Textbook
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https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/proxy/2thnLnWd5hCPQU4ANaxogH7HlL2DLyTW
4HZaz4NSJTRF1_9AUXBOZWnd2eoiqKXFBLQU9EqjXqHO6l1LuYL1zv7ghg1Rk7u
sQ6ZqdPg4EFH9B3b7yfL8LG-r
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/energy/u5l1e6.gif
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/Images/powr.gif

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