Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 147–156

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Nuclear energy in the Post-Fukushima Era: Research on the

developments of the Chinese and worldwide nuclear power industries
Zeng Ming a, Liu Yingxin a, Ouyang Shaojie a,n, Shi Hui b, Li Chunxue a
a
School of Economics and Management, North China Electric Power University, Beijing 102206, China
b
Shenzhen Power Supply Co. Ltd., Shenzhen 518001, China

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The nuclear accident that occurred in Fukushima, Japan has broadly affected the rapid development
Received 5 December 2014 trend of the worldwide nuclear industry, causing many countries, including China, to adjust their nuclear
Received in revised form policies. However, as the impact of the accident is fading away, nuclear policies are differentiating
23 September 2015
worldwide. Hence, analysing nuclear policies in different countries and their trends after the Fukushima
Accepted 17 December 2015
accident has a practical significance of promoting the effective and safe development of the nuclear
Available online 12 January 2016
power industry. This paper focuses on the nuclear accident in Fukushima, Japan, and its wide impact.
Keywords: First, the changes of the developmental policies and the trends of the nuclear powers, including China,
The Fukushima nuclear accident are summarised just after the accident in Fukushima occurred. Next, the nuclear power development of
Nuclear policy
the nuclear powers and China in the last two years is analysed with real data. Finally, this paper sys-
Development of nuclear power
tematically predicts the developmental direction of the global nuclear industry according to the actual
Nuclear safety
nuclear development status in each country.
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
2. Status of nuclear power policy changes in countries after the Fukushima accident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
2.1. Status of the world's overall nuclear policy changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
2.2. Status of the nuclear policy changes in countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
2.3. Status of nuclear policy changes in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
2.3.1. China's nuclear power profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
2.3.2. Nuclear policy changes in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3. Status of nuclear power development in the last two years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.1. The world's nuclear power development situation as a whole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.2. The nuclear development situation of specific countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.3. China’s nuclear development situation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.3.1. Nuclear power situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.3.2. Nuclear policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4. The world's developmental trend of nuclear power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.1. The developmental trend of nuclear power throughout the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.2. Countries' developmental trend of nuclear power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.3. China's developmental trend of nuclear power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 86 13426197078.
E-mail address: oysj0216@163.com (O. Shaojie).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.165
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
148 Z. Ming et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 147–156
1. Introduction
Since the late 19th century, efforts have been made by coun-
tries to reach an international consensus against energy and
environmental problems caused by excessive human activities.
Large-scale application of nuclear energy and the explosive growth
of renewable energy sources make it possible for global economics
and environmental protection to transition from the current
dependence on fossil fuels [23]. As one of the most potential and
practical sources of new energy, nuclear energy has an irreplace-
able advantage not only in terms of low costs and carbon dioxide
emissions but also regarding operating stability compared to tra-
ditional fossil energy and renewable energy [4,18]. However, the
safety problem of nuclear energy has always been a critical issue,
focused on by all countries [27,19].
On March 11, 2011, an earthquake of 9.0 on the Richter scale
occurred in east Japan, resulting in a tsunami that caused the
explosion of units in the Fukushima nuclear power plant [22].
Thereafter, the electricity price rose markedly because of power
shortages caused by the accident, which seriously impacted the
nation's economy and people's lives [9] and shocked nuclear
industries worldwide [5,24]. After the Fukushima nuclear accident,
the rapid development trend of the global nuclear industries was
affected. Additionally, many nuclear powers, including China,
adjusted their nuclear power policies [7]. Hence, analysing nuclear
power policies and their trends after the Fukushima accident has a
practical significance in promoting the effective and safe devel-
opment of the nuclear power industry.
The paper focuses on the extensive and far-reaching influence of
the Fukushima nuclear accident in Japan. First, the paper describes
the nuclear development changes and trends in the nuclear powers
just after the Fukushima nuclear accident (in the year of 2011). Next,
the nuclear power development of the nuclear powers and China
during the last two years is analysed with real data (in the year of
2012 and 2013). Finally, the developmental direction of the global
nuclear industry is predicted herein based on each country's actual
nuclear development status (in 2014 and beyond).
Fig. 1. The changes of world’s nuclear policy after the Fukushima accident. Note: Sourced from various resources and compiled by the authors.
2. Status of nuclear power policy changes in countries after
the Fukushima accident
2.1. Status of the world's overall nuclear policy changes
After the Fukushima nuclear accident in Japan, all countries
that had nuclear plants throughout the world took immediate
action or declared an adjustment of their nuclear development
policy based on the domestic development status of nuclear power
and the current nuclear policy. In the process, different countries
implemented different coping strategies [6]. Some countries, such
as the U.S.A. and France, basically support all of their existing
power stations and the nuclear industry as a whole. Other coun-
tries, Germany in particular, made dramatic changes in their
nuclear policy out of concerns for reactor safety [7]. Some coun-
tries that once intended to introduce nuclear power have already
suspended their nuclear power development plans. Fig. 1 sum-
marises the situation of the world's nuclear policies just after the
Fukushima accident.
As shown in Fig. 1, the attitudes for nuclear power around the
world have divided after the Fukushima nuclear accident. Some
countries, such as USA, Canada, Western Europe countries, China,
Russia, and India, pay more attention to security and slow down
the speed of development of nuclear power as the fukushima
accident, but never give up affirmatively. While a part of countries
in the Middle East, North Africa, South Asia and South America,
because of the requirements of economic development, are still
seek to develop nuclear power on the basis of the original plan.
However, Spain, Portugal and Japan indicate to maintain the status
quo. Sweden and Germany would gradually reduce nuclear power.
To summarise the world's nuclear policy changes after the
Fukushima nuclear accident, the changes can be roughly divided
into four categories (as presented in Table 1): 1) continue devel-
oping nuclear power, 2) make use of existing nuclear power
plants, 3) gradually reduce nuclear power, and 4) gradually with-
draw from nuclear power.
 Z. Ming et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 147–156 149

Table 1
Summary of the world's nuclear policy changes after the Fukushima accident.

No Basic attitude Country

1 Continue developing The country is using nuclear power and constructing new nuclear power plants, for example, the U.S.A., Russia, China, and
France. The country is using nuclear power and plans to construct new nuclear power plants, for example, Mexico and Brazil.
The country has no nuclear power plants, but is building new nuclear power plants, for example, Chile and Egypt. The country
has no nuclear plants and plans to build new nuclear plants, for example, Iran.
2 Make use of existing nuclear The country is using nuclear power, and no more nuclear plants will be built, for example, Japan and Spain.
plants
3 Phase-out The country is using nuclear power and is going to phase out the nuclear industry, for example, Germany, Belgium and
Switzerland.
4 Phase down The country is using nuclear power; however, it is considering reducing the number of nuclear power plants, for example,
Sweden.

Note: sourced from various resources and compiled by the authors.

It can be seen from Table 1 and Fig. 1 that, although the
Fukushima nuclear accident in Japan cast a shadow over the
world's nuclear development, in the background of energy short-
age and environmental protection, considering the national con-
ditions and their respective development needs, most countries
still chose to continue development of nuclear power. However,
nuclear power will be developed prudently.
2.2. Status of the nuclear policy changes in countries
The reaction towards the Fukushima nuclear accident and the
changes of nuclear development policy in various countries in the
nine months following the accident will be briefly described in
this section, as summarised in Table 2.
The following describes the different reactions of the above-
mentioned countries towards the Fukushima accident:
(1) Nuclear power units in operation
China had 13 nuclear power units commissioned when the
Fukushima accident occurred (the basic situation is presented
in Table 3): Qinshan phase I Nuclear Power Plant, Qinshan
phase II Nuclear Power Plant, Qinshan phase III Nuclear Power
Plant, Daya Bay Nuclear Power Plant, Ling'ao phase I Nuclear
Power Plant, Tianwan phase I Nuclear Power Plant, Unit 3 of
the Ling'ao phase III Nuclear Power Plant, and Unit 3 of the
Qinshan phase II Nuclear Expansion Program.
(2) Nuclear power units under construction
At that time, China had 26 nuclear power units under con-
struction, including: Unit 4 of the Ling’ao phase II NPP,
Hongyanhe phase I NPP, Ningde phase I NPP, Fuqing phase I
NPP, Unit 1/2/3 of Yangjiang NPP, Fangjiashan NPP(Qinshan
phase I Nuclear Power Expansion Program), Sanmen NPP,
Haiyang NPP, Taishan NPP, Changjiang NPP and Unit1 of
Fangchenggang NPP.

1) The security departments of most countries launched research

2.3.2. Nuclear policy changes in China
to provide lessons learned from the accident [1]. Many countries
that own and operate nuclear plants formulated and imple-
(1) Basic attitude
mented a plan involving “stress tests”. The plan was intended to
After Japan's Fukushima nuclear accident, China made it clear
test the situation of the country's nuclear plants in the case that
that it would support its nuclear power policy. Meanwhile,
the same nuclear accident as the one in Japan occurred, which
China checked the safety of its nuclear projects and suspended
led to reactor shutdown and loss of off-site power supply and
the approval of new nuclear programs. The government also
led to the use of an emergency supply over a long period of
tightened the rules to draft nuclear safety plans and adjust the
time. Aimed at determining the reason for the Fukushima
National Nuclear Long-and-Medium Term Development Plan-
accident, countries also reviewed the security of their own
ning [17].
nuclear power plants [11].
(2) China's reactions towards Japan's Fukushima nuclear accident
2) When analysing the reasons for the nuclear dismantlement of some
countries, it can be concluded that public opposition to nuclear
After the Fukushima nuclear accident in Japan, some Chinese
power is one of the main reasons why such countries declared the
abandonment or reduction of nuclear power [25,26,12]. people were afraid that nuclear proliferation might cause harm to
humans and were worried about the salt from radioactive con-
tamination; as a result, they were excessively nervous to collect
2.3. Status of nuclear policy changes in China
salt and kelp. In the meantime, the government and central
nuclear enterprises, for the first time, provided a positive response.
2.3.1. China's nuclear power profile
After the first Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant of 300 MW was
1) Positive response of China's government. After the Fukushima
designed and built successfully, China has built three additional
nuclear accident on March 12, 2011, The Ministry of Environ-
nuclear power plants: Qinshan Nuclear Power Base in Zhe Jiang,
mental Protection declared that China's determination to
Guangdong Daya Bay Nuclear Power Base and Tianwan Nuclear
develop nuclear power and its nuclear development plan will
Power Base in Jiang Su [21]. While the Fukushima Accident was not change. The National Development and Reform Commission
occurring, the government approved 39 nuclear power units and also expressed that developing safe and efficient nuclear power
the total installed nuclear capacity was 39.61 GW. Among them, is one of the important ways to achieve the clean energy
the number of nuclear power units that were already completed developmental goal [13].
and commissioned was 13, with a total installed capacity of On March 16, 2011, the State Council made four decisions
10.8 GW. The number of nuclear power units under construction regarding how to operate, build and develop nuclear power
was 26, with a total installed capacity of 28.81 GW (as shown based on the earnest analysis of the accident: organise a
in Fig. 2). The construction scale ranked first in the world at that comprehensive inspection of the safety of China's nuclear
time [28]. facilities immediately; strengthen the safety management of
 150
Table 2
Reactions towards the Fukushima accident and nuclear policy changes of the main nuclear power countries in the world (Source: WNA, IEA, WEC).

No Country Nuclear power situation Changes of nuclear policy

The number of nuclear Risks of nuclear Basic attitude Reactions/measures after the Fukushima accident in Japan
plants power

1 27 European Union 143 No agreements The EU conducted stress tests on 143 European nuclear plants on June1, 2011. The tests examined the ability
countries of nuclear plants to resist emergencies, such as earthquake, flood, tsunami, tornado, impacts of plane and
explosion. The test reports were submitted to the EU on November 11.
2 U.S.A. 104 medium Continue developing New nuclear plants were constructed as planned. The U.S.A. performed a comprehensive estimate on the
domestic nuclear plants and made every effort to ensure the nuclear facilities are safe and reliable.
3 France 59 low Continue developing France continued to develop nuclear power and examined the safety of all nuclear plants. France also shut
down nuclear plants that could not pass the EU test standards.The former president of France—Nicholas
Sarkozy, indicated that the Fukushima nuclear accident in Japan would not have negative effects on the new
nuclear energy plans, so France would continue to rely on nuclear power. Additionally, France declared on

Z. Ming et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 147–156

June 27, 2011, that the country would invest one billion euros (approximately NT41.3 billion dollars) to
develop nuclear energy [16].
4 Russia 32 low Continue developing Russia performed an additional estimate on the safety of nuclear plants, and also performed stress tests of
the stability under all types of emergencies, including loss of external power supply. In the meantime, Russia
positively sought to increase nuclear investments at home and abroad.
5 Korea 21 low Continue developing Korea continued its current nuclear energy policy, while emphasising safety. Korea planned to implement
safety examinations on primary nuclear facilities, including the central examination of old facilities that have
operated for over 20 years.
6 India 20 low Continue developing India performed safety examinations on all nuclear facilities and proposed additional planning suggestions
on new plants. India indicated that its nuclear plan would not be affected by the Fukushima nuclear crisis
and that they would develop long-term nuclear plans.
7 England 19 medium Continue developing Britain continued to develop nuclear power and enhance the safety management of nuclear power. Because
their nuclear industry was in a renewal period, Britain was making nuclear plant plans to close some plants
and construct others.
8 Canada 18 low Continue developing Canada required a relevant department to finish the safety examination of nuclear plants and nuclear
facilities before April 29, 2011. The examination included reactions to emergencies, prevention measures
under serious accidents and reactions to fire, flood and earthquake.
9 Japan 55 high Make use of existing nuclear Japan implemented new safety estimates of nuclear plants to determine whether to commission nuclear
plants plants that finished regular maintenance and whether to continue to operate nuclear plants currently in
operation [10,2].
10 Spain 8 medium Make use of existing nuclear Spain examined the safety of all nuclear plants and planned to shut down one nuclear plant in northern
plants Spain by 2013, the reactors of which were the same as that of Fukushima, Japan.
11 Germany 17 high Phase-out Germany conducted thorough examinations on the safety of 17 nuclear power plants, in the meantime,
Germany shut down 7 old nuclear plants temporarily. The government planned to close all of the nuclear
plants before 2022.
12 Belgium 7 medium Phase-out Belgium plannedto close 3 old nuclear power plants before 2015 and end the use of nuclear power by 2025.
13 Switzerland 5 medium Phase-out Switzerland stopped the transformation and renovation plan of 5 nuclear power plants. Switzerland also
began to perform stress tests on 5 nuclear plants earlier than European Union. The country planned to phase
out their nuclear power program before 2034.
14 Sweden 10 low Phase down Sweden conducted safety tests on nuclear plants and reduced the use of nuclear energy gradually. The
country also significantly invested in new energy; however, Sweden still needs nuclear energy for the next
ten to twenty years.
15 Finland 4 low Continue developing Finland performed a comprehensive test on the safety systems of all domestic nuclear reactors. The country's
general attitude towards nuclear power never changed.
16 Hungary 4 low Continue developing Hungary performed stress tests on nuclear plants and indicated that nuclear energy would play an impor-
tant role in the next ten years.
17 Argentina 3 low Continue developing On September 28, 2011, the third Argentine nuclear plant was commissioned, while the fourth nuclear plant
was going to be built soon.
18 Brazil 2 low Continue developing Brazil issued the five-year action plan after the Fukushima accident to estimate and improve the safety and
reliability of nuclear power plants in operation. Brazil planned to put a third nuclear reactor into operation in
2016 and construct a fourth nuclear plant.
 Z. Ming et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 147–156 151

running nuclear facilities; perform a comprehensive review of

Netherland performed safety tests on domestic nuclear plants and planned to construct new nuclear plants.
Bulgaria performed safety tests on domestic nuclear plants. In the meantime, the country was constructing

Armenia performed safety tests on domestic nuclear plants and planned to construct new nuclear plants. construction plans; and strictly examine new clean power
projects.
Romania planned to add 2 nuclear power plants before 2020 and build another one before 2035.

2) Reactions and measures of central nuclear power enterprises.

Initially, CNNC (China National Nuclear Corp, CNNC) required all
of the nuclear power plants to monitor operational nuclear
power units and the environment. Next, CNNC conducted a
comprehensive inspection of nuclear facilities and assessed the
nuclear projects under construction as well as nuclear projects
that were being prepared to be built. In this process, the aim
was to address hidden safety problems and then promptly
rectify nuclear projects to ensure that nuclear plants would
operate safely.

CGN (China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group, CGN) immedi-

ately set up six groups to examine the safety of nuclear power
plants under construction and in operation within the group based
on the important management measures on China's nuclear safety
established in the meetings of the State Council [3].
From the end of March to the beginning of April, NEC(China
Nuclear Engineering Group Corporation, NEC) established a quality
and safety inspection team to conduct the quality and safety
inspection of nuclear projects and nuclear military industrial
projects under construction. The group attempted to immediately
rectify hidden safety problems and implement strong measures to
ensure the safety of nuclear projects and nuclear military indus-
new nuclear plants.

trial projects under construction [20].

3. Status of nuclear power development in the last two years

The Fukushima nuclear accident in Japan had a profoundly

negative impact on global nuclear development and slowed the
development of global nuclear power. In the last two years, after the
suspension of the trend of implementing nuclear power plants,
Continue developing

Continue developing
Continue developing
Continue developing

nuclear power throughout the world gradually is recovering.

Although the number of new nuclear power plants to be con-
structed is less than the number before the accident, the global
nuclear power installed capacity still exhibits a steady upward
trend. The following chapter summarises the nuclear power
development status of the world and for specific countries for both
2012 and 2013 based on the analysis of nuclear policies after the
Fukushima accident and describes the continuous impact that the
Fukushima accident has had on global nuclear power development.

3.1. The world's nuclear power development situation as a whole

Note: Sourced from various resources and compiled by the authors.
low

low
low
low

Three years have passed since the Fukushima nuclear accident

in Japan; today, the entire world clearly recognises the impact of
the accident on the global nuclear industry. Hence, people gra-
dually have treated the accident rationally. After the trend of
suspending the development of nuclear power, the world’s nuclear
power development has gradually restored to a pattern of smooth
development. Although the number of new nuclear power plants
2

2
1
1

is significantly smaller than the number before the accident, a

steady upward trend of the global nuclear power installed capacity
continues(see in Fig. 3).
According to the statistics of the IAEA(International Atomic
Energy Agency, IAEA), at the end of December,2011, the number of
operational nuclear power units was 436, with a total installed
Netherlands

capacity of 375 GWe(see Table 4). Nuclear power plants are pri-
Romania
Armenia
Bulgaria

marily distributed in selected industrial countries: North America,

including Canada; the European countries, such as France, Britain,
Russia, and Germany; and some East Asian countries, such as
20

22
21
19

Japan and Korea(see Fig. 4).

152 Z. Ming et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 147–156

Fig. 2. Distribution of nuclear power plants in China after the Fukushima accident.

3.2. The nuclear development situation of specific countries Table 3

Statistics of nuclear power units in operation in China.
Although Germany and Switzerland made decisions to give up
Name of nuclear plant Nuclear reac- Rated Commercial Enterprise
nuclear energy after the Fukushima accident, most nuclear coun-
tor type power operation
tries decided to continue their original nuclear development plans. (MW) date
Since 2012, most countries accelerated their development of
nuclear power; the nuclear development situation of the various Qinshan phase I Pressurized 310 1994/04/01 CNNC
water reactor
countries is presented in Table 5.
Qinshan phase Unit 1 PWR 2  650 2002/04/15 CNNC
II Unit 2 (CNP650) 2004/05/03
3.3. China’s nuclear development situation Qinshan phase Unit 1 HWR 2  700 2002/12/31 CNNC
III Unit 2 (CANDU6) 2003/07/24
Since the Fukushima accident in 2011, Chinese nuclear devel- Daya bay Unit 1 PWR(M310) 2  984 1994/02/01 CGNPC
Unit 2 1994/05/06
opment slowed down, and the entire nuclear industry entered into Ling'ao phase I Unit 1 PWR 2  990 2002/05/28 CGNPC
an extended reflection phase. During this time, the government Unit 2 (CPR1000) 2003/01/08
implemented stricter policies, and nuclear enterprises began to Tianwan phase Unit 1 PWR(VVER) 2  1060 2007/05/17 CNNC
seek more reliable development plans. Two years later, with the I Unit 2 2007/08/16
Ling’ao phase Unit 3
PWR 1  1080 2010/9/20 CGNPC
shadow fading away and the increase of severe energy stress,
III (CPR1000)
China gradually resumed nuclear power plant construction. Qinshan phase Unit 3 PWR 1  650 2010/10/21 CNNC
II Nuclear (CNP650)
3.3.1. Nuclear power situation Expansion
Program
Since China immediately resumed nuclear power development
at the end of 2012, China's nuclear construction began to Note: Sourced from various resources and compiled by the authors.
“unfreeze” in 2013. Unit 1 of the Tianwan phase 2 NPP became one
of the first new nuclear projects to be constructed after the The resumption of nuclear power development in 2013 gradually
Fukushima accident. Soon after, three units, Unit 4 of Fuqing, Unit sped up. There were two units commissioned for commercial
4 of Yangjiang and the Shidaowan Nuclear Power Plant, were
operation this year: Unit 1 of the Ningde NPP and Unit 1 of the
commissioned for construction. In the meantime, some projects
Hongyanhe NPP. On April 15, 2013, Unit 1 of the Ningde Nuclear
that were under construction, such as the Taishan Nuclear Power
Power Plant was commissioned for commercial operation, with a
Plant and the Fangchenggang NPP, entered into the period of
debugging and installation [8]. At the end of 2013, there were 29 total installed capacity of 1.09 GW; on February 17, 2013, the first
nuclear units under construction in China, with a total installed nuclear power plant in northeast China, Unit 1 of the Hongyanhe
capacity of 31.66 GW, and the construction scale ranked first in Nuclear Power Plant, was connected to the grid, which indicated that
the world. the unit officially entered the stage of grid-connection and debugging.
 Z. Ming et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 147–156 153

18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
nuclear power plants already
closed 5 2 8 1 2 3 1 13 3 4

nuclear power plants newly

built 2 3 4 8 10 12 16 4 7 5

Fig. 3. Status of number changes of nuclear power units in the world from 2004 to 2013.
Source: IAEA NET.

Fig. 4. The number of running nuclear units of each country in the world (By
Table 4 December, 2013).
Status of nuclear development in the world from 2009 to 2013. Source: IAEA NET.

Number of coun- Number of Installed Number of units

tries that is run- running capacity
ning nuclear plants units (GWe)
2009 31 435 370
2010 30 435 370
2011 30 435 368
2012 31 434 364
2013 31 436 375
On June 6, 2013, the unit was officially commissioned after finishing
all of the technical tests, and its total installed capacity was 1.12 GW.
At the end of 2013, China has 17 operating nuclear units in all, with a
total installed capacity of 14.74 GW.
According to the statistics from the NEA in 2013, Chinese
nuclear generation and the amount of nuclear power on-grid
continued to increase. The cumulative nuclear generation was
110.71 GW h, which was 16.62 percent higher than that of 2012.
The cumulative generation on-grid was 104.09 GW h, that is, 12.38
percent higher than in 2012 [15].
3.3.2. Nuclear policy
Nuclear development accelerated after its restart. This accel-
erated development is due to a series of policies that were
implemented by the Chinese government after the nuclear acci-
dent. We summarised the Chinese nuclear policy and relative
content from 2012 to 2013 in Table 6.
In addition, on June 15 in 2013, the NDRC issued a statement
that the current feed-in tariff should change from individual pri-
cing to a unified benchmark feed-in tariff for new nuclear units
[14]. After the benchmark price for renewable energy, such as
wind power and solar photovoltaic power was issued, the
benchmark price for nuclear power was finally decided. The price
was 0.43 Yuan per kWh, which was 0.02–0.04 Yuan higher than
the industrial average feed-in tariff. So far, the historical policy of
one price for one plant came to an end; hence, the price for
nuclear power changed from being determined by a planned
economy to being based on a market economy.
The above policy indicates that China's nuclear power is
accelerating rapidly from a period of being halted after the
Fukushima accident in Japan. In the future, we will continue to
develop nuclear power and accelerate its development.
4. The world's developmental trend of nuclear power
4.1. The developmental trend of nuclear power throughout the world
From the above analysis, after undergoing a suspension of the
development of nuclear plants, the world's nuclear power was
under construction
found to be gradually restored to steady development. Although
the number of new nuclear plants significantly decreased com-
pared to the number before the accident, the world's nuclear
52
installed capacity still exhibits a trend of steady development.
62
64
According to the analysis, there are two driving forces to
59 develop nuclear power: the first is the need for nuclear power to
66 develop the economy of the relevant country; the second is the
need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate the effects of
the global warming phenomenon. Because these two needs are
long-standing and enormous in quantity, nuclear energy must be
developed in spite of the Fukushima accident. That is, the impact
that the Fukushima accident had on global nuclear development
can be viewed as a short-time shock, and the overall develop-
mental trend for global nuclear energy will not change. However,
the accident had negative impact. For example, the accident
resulted in the slowing of the development of nuclear energy, and
the speed of the development obviously decreased in districts
where people are strongly against nuclear energy. As a result, the
safety standards for global nuclear energy will improve.
4.2. Countries' developmental trend of nuclear power
After the Fukushima accident, the situations of the world's
nuclear development policies are summarised as follows:
(1) After Japan's Fukushima accident, only a few countries pro-
posed to reduce and remove nuclear power, in particular,
Germany and Japan.
Germany closed 8 nuclear units that were constructed in the
20th century after the Fukushima accident. We predict that
Germany will continue to close nuclear unit, and disaffiliate
from nuclear power. On the contrary, Japan proposed to
“reduce nuclear power” at home, but they promoted their
nuclear units abroad, for example, Hitachi purchased the
horizon nuclear power company of Britain on October, 2012.
Hence, it can be predicted that Japan is much more likely to
restore nuclear power.
(2) The nuclear powers of the world continue to develop nuclear
power. After the Fukushima accident in Japan, America,
France, Russia, Canada and Korea continue developing nuclear
power. Hence, these nuclear powers are expected to continue
their previous nuclear development plan, and they will con-
tinue constructing new nuclear plants. In the meantime, these
countries will enhance the safety examination work of nuclear
power and improve nuclear safety technology.
(3) Emerging countries are accelerating their development of
nuclear power. China, India, South Africa, Brazil and Argentina
will continue to develop nuclear power.
154 Z. Ming et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 147–156

Table 5
Situation of the nuclear power development of the relevant countries from 2012 to 2013.
Source: NEA NET; IAEA NET.

No Country Nuclear power development status

1 27 European Union countries Twelve EU countries signed a joint statement to declare their confidence that nuclear energy would play a role in the European
future's low-carbon energy structure on March, 2012, in London, England. These countries also appealed to create appropriate
investment environment for new reactors.
2 U.S.A. On February, 2012, the U.S.A. once again considered the construction of two new nuclear reactors. On March, 2013, America began to
construct two nuclear units, which had been forbidden to be built for the past 30 years. This construction began a new journey for
American nuclear power. In 2013, America permanently shut down Crystal River one-unit nuclear plant, two units of San Onofre
Nuclear Plant and four nuclear reactors of Kewaunee Nuclear Plant.
3 France In October, 2012, the French President Francois Hollande held a nuclear policy committee meeting, in which he proposed to decrease
nuclear power proportion in the country's total power from 75 percent to 50 percent. At the end of 2012, France had built 71 nuclear
units (among them, 12 were already closed, and the Flamanville-3 unit was under construction). The number of plants in France was
second to the number of plants in the U.S.A. In 2012, the nuclear power proportion of the total power in France was 75 percent,
2.9 percent lower than 2011. The total power amount was 407.4 billion kWh, which decreased by 16.1 billion kWh compared to 2011.
4 Russia In 2012, Russia made remarkable achievements in the nuclear market. The foreign order of the country's state-owned nuclear power
company, Rosatom, was at a steady level of $69.3 billion; this number excluded contract for highly enriched uranium mixed into
low-enriched uranium (it means transforming highly enriched uranium of Russian nuclear warheads into low enriched uranium).
The contract increased by 18.4 billion dollars in 2012.
5 Korea In 2013, after the exposure of the use of counterfeit items, Korean nuclear power plants received criticism from people of all walks of
life. These counterfeit items have led many Korean nuclear power plants to stop operating. In the beginning of May in 2012, con-
struction began on the New Wei Jane nuclear power plant, and in July, the first pot of concrete of Unit1 of the plant was poured.
According to the plan, Unit1 was to be finished by April, 2017, and Unit 2 was planned to be finished in April, 2018.On August 12,
2013, the Korean NSSC approved the restart of the Hanul4 Unit, which was stopped in September, 2011 for maintenance and
examination.
6 India At the end of 2012, India had built 22 nuclear power plants (among them 7 nuclear power plants were under construction). The
nuclear power proportion to the total power generation in India was 3.6 percent in 2012, which decreased to 0.1 percent compared
with 2011. In July, 2013, the largest Indian nuclear power plant began to generate power. The operation of the plant, Kudankulam,
was suspended because of protests. Kundankulam reached a critical condition on July 13, 2013, that is, the nuclear fission chain
reaction chain went into a self-sustaining state. The power from the plant would supply the power needs of four states, among them
the biggest beneficiary was Tamil Texa, where the nuclear plant is located. At the end of 2013, nuclear energy was only 2.6 percent of
the total Indian energy demand. The government planned to increase the proportion to 10 percent by 2020 and to 25 percent by
2050. This means that by 2020, nuclear power will increase to 20000 MW. To achieve the goal, the government has declared to
invest 77 billion dollars to construct new nuclear power plants during 2010 to 2020.
7 England On May 22, 2012, Britain DECC issued «The Energy Law» (draft), which was expected for a long time. In March, 2013, England, for the
first time since 1995, approved the construction of new nuclear power plants. Moreover, England also issued permits to French
power enterprises to build nuclear projects in the Somerset Hinckley Angle area in southwest of England.
8 Canada At the end of 2012, Canada has 25 nuclear units (among them 6 were closed permanently). The generation of Canada in 2012 was
89.1 billion kWh, which was 0.8 billion kWh higher than in 2011. Nuclear power was 15.3 percent of the Canadian total generation,
and the proportion was flat compared to that of 2011.
9 Japan In May, 2012, Reactor 3 of the Tomari Nuclear Power Plant in Hokkaido was closed. On June 9, 2012, the Japanese government issued
“the draft innovation energy and environmental” strategies, in which there was the goal of phasing out nuclear power as soon as
possible. On September 14, 2012, the “Policy of energy and environmental strategies” was approved by the Japanese government.
The strategies proposed to create a society without nuclear power by the 2030s of this century and three principles for nuclear
power development: strictly implement the provisions of 40 years for nuclear reactor operation life; once guaranteed, restart the
existing nuclear plants; do not produce new and additional nuclear power plant construction plans.At the end of 2012, Japan had
built 62 nuclear units, among them 9 were shut down permanently. The Monju Unit was shut down for a long time. Moreover,
2 units were under construction. Japanese nuclear generation was 17.2 billion kWh, which decreased by 88.99 percent compared to
2011; the proportion of nuclear power in Japanese generation was 2.1%, which was 16 percent lower than in 2011.On January 2, 2013,
Japan's new prime minister, Shinzo Abe, stated that he was going to approve construction of more nuclear reactors and would
reconsider Japan's nuclear energy policy. However, the Japanese government did not mention the restart of the operation of any
nuclear reactors. On September15, 2012, the last nuclear plant in operation was closed. Hereafter, all nuclear plants in Japan would
be stopped running once again.
10 Spain Spain initiated the closing of the Garoña Nuclear Power Plant in the north of Spain. On July 14, 2013, the Garoña Nuclear Power Plant
was officially closed.
11 Germany At the end of 2012, Germany had built 36 nuclear units (among them 27 were closed permanently). In 2012, German nuclear
generation was 94.1 billion kWh, which decreased 8.2 billion kWh compared to the previous year. The nuclear power proportion of
the total German generation was 16.1 percent, which was 1.7% lower than in 2011.
12 Belgium At the end of 2012, Belgium had built 8 nuclear units (among them, the BR-3 PWR (test) nuclear facility was shut down). In 2012,
Belgian nuclear generation was 38.5 billion kWh, which decreased by 7.4 billion kWh from the previous year. The nuclear power
proportion of the total German generation was 51 percent, which was 3% lower than in 2011.
13 Switzerland On October 30, 2012, the Swiss state-run energy enterprise BKW stated that the Muehleberg Nuclear Power Plant was going to be
retired in 2019. After the Fukushima accident in Japan, Switzerland sought to phase out nuclear power.
14 Sweden On December 21, 2012, the largest nuclear power plant in Sweden, Spirit Hals, was closed because its reactor seeped radioactive
products into the ocean. In January, 2013, there were 10 nuclear units in Sweden, which supplied 40% of the country's entire power
demand.
15 Finland At the end of 2012, Finland had built 5 nuclear units (among them, Olkiluoto-3 was under construction). In 2012, the Finnish nuclear
generation was 22.1 billion kWh, which decreased by 0.2 billion kWh from the previous year. Nuclear power accounted for 32.6% of
the total electricity generation in Finland, which was 1% lower than in 2011.
16 Brazil In 2012, Brazilian nuclear generation was 15.2 billion kWh, which increased 0.4 billion kWh compared to the previous year. Nuclear
power accounted for 3.1% of total electricity generation in Brazil, which was 0.1% lower than in 2011.
 Z. Ming et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 147–156 155

Table 6
Chinese nuclear policy and relative content from 2012 to 2013.

Time Policy Main content

June, 2012 《General technical requirements for nuclear power plant improvement Regulate common improvement action of each plant. Solve the technical
action after the Fukushima accident(trial)》(NNSA file [2012] NO. 98) unity problem in the process of implementing improvement actions after
the Fukushima accident.
June, 2012 《The nuclear safety cooperation agreements on both sides of the Taiwan Exchange and cooperate in fields of the nuclear safety, accident emer-
straits》 gency notification and other issues.
October, 2012 《Nuclear safety, radioactive pollution prevention and control in the 12th Restart to construct safely; reasonable grasp the pace of construction;
Five-year Plan and 2020 vision》、《The nuclear safety plan (2011– push and order the pace steadily; layout the project scientifically. During
2020)》and《Long-term nuclear power development plan(2011–2020)》 the 12th Five-year Plan period, arrange some nuclear projects that have
been examined detailedly. Do not arrange inland nuclear projects.
Improve the safe standard of nuclear plant permission. Construct new
nuclear power projects based on the highest safe standard in the world,
and new nuclear projects must meet three safe standards.
March, 2013 《The draft plan for national economic and social development report It is estimated to increase 3.24 GW of nuclear installed capacity. This
2013》 means China's nuclear installed capacity would increase 20% in 2013.
March, 2013 《The State Council's propose of the State Council reform and function Integrate the responsibility and consolidation of the national energy
change Plan》 administration and the state electricity regulatory commission, and re-
build the national energy administration. The new national energy
administration will be managed by NDRC. Cancel the State Electricity
Regulatory Commission.
September, 2013 《Action plan of air pollution prevention and control》 Emphasize to speed up the use of clean energy. Running nuclear units
installed capacity would reach 50 GW in 2017 by its prediction.
October, 2013 《Implementation plan of the scientific development coordination It is the first time to propose the stepping-out strategy of nuclear power
mechanism to serve nuclear power enterprises》 and indicate detail directions. Promote the strategy to be the important
means of bilateral political, economic exchanges between China and
potential nuclear input countries.

Note: Sourced from various resources and compiled by the authors.

(4) Most European countries will continue to increase their
investment in nuclear power, such as England, Sweden, the
Netherlands, Ukraine, Spain, Slovakia, Romania, Hungary,
Bulgaria, and so on. These countries indicated that they will
not to give up nuclear power immediately after the Fukushima
accident and continued their original development plans. In
the meantime, these countries focused more on nuclear safety.
(5) Countries that are short of energy or that must improve their
energy infrastructure proposed to develop nuclear power,
such as Poland, Pakistan, Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia, Ban-
gladesh, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Turkey, Nigeria, and so on. These
countries were not affected by the nuclear accident; after
comprehensive consideration, they believed that nuclear
power has great significance to economy and thus continued
to make plans to introduce nuclear technology.
that are densely populated, such as Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangxi,
Sichuan and Henan. Therefore, China’s nuclear power will
develop in inland areas.
(3) Economisation. In our energy structure, coal power is domi-
nant. Compared with coal power and gas power, the cost of
nuclear power is not as economical. Therefore, economisation
of China’s nuclear power industry will realise the domestica-
tion and standardisation of nuclear facility production and
mass production based on the introduction of foreign
advanced technology and independent development. This
economisation will also reduce the costs of nuclear power
efficiently.
5. Conclusion

4.3. China's developmental trend of nuclear power
In recent years, the State Council approved new nuclear pro-
jects in succession and implemented a series of nuclear policies to
approve nuclear power. In the 13th Five-Year-Plan period, China
planned to build 18 new nuclear units to achieve 60 million kilo-
watts of installed capacity in 2020. It is estimated that by 2020,
there will be 270 billion Yuan in the new nuclear facilities market.
China's nuclear power will transition to a period of accelerated
development. The features of the process are as follows.
(1) Securitisation. After Japan's Fukushima accident, the govern-
ment of China improved the safety standards of national
nuclear power to improve the safety level of nuclear power
and develop a safe, efficient nuclear industry. Currently, China
has independently made good achievements in improving the
design of its nuclear power and the safety standard of nuclear
power. The government has issued relevant policies. There-
fore, China's nuclear power will develop with an emphasis on
safety.
(2) Inland. Because current nuclear units are distributed in coastal
areas, new nuclear units will be constructed in inland areas
After the Fukushima accident in Japan, global nuclear power
development was strongly affected, with most countries, including
China, adjusting their nuclear policies. The paper want to show the
process of the countries adjusting their attitudes and policies for
nuclear power. Firstly, this paper analysed the reactions of the
countries and the nuclear policies implemented after the accident.
Second, the paper summarised the situation of global nuclear
development in 2012 and 2013. With time lapse, countries bagan
rational consideration in next 2 years. Finally, the paper discussed
the development trend of the world's nuclear industry in the
future.
After the study of above, we can see that at the beginning of
Post-Fukushima Era, the main countries with nuclear power were
cautious and anxious The nuclear powers of the world examined
the safety of their nuclear power. In addition, some of the nuclear
projects were delayed and cancelled; during this time, China
stopped approving new nuclear projects. However, after the sus-
pension of nuclear power plants in 2011, the world's nuclear
power development was restored to steady development.
Although some developed countries hold different attitudes
towards future nuclear development, most nuclear countries will
still study and make use of nuclear energy, and the principle and
156 Z. Ming et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 147–156
development trend regarding nuclear utilization did not change.
China will develop more safe and efficient nuclear units by
focusing on nuclear safety. In the meantime, China will commit to
the economisation of nuclear power by mass, domestic, and
standard production.
Acknowledgements
The work described in this paper was supported by the
National Science Foundation of China (NSFC)(71271082), the Fun-
damental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2014XS60),
the science and technology project of State Grid Corporation of
China (title:Research and application of key technologies in smart
grid park energy management and optimization for smart city)
and the Energy Foundation of the U.S. (G-1006-12630).
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