Design of 30 MW Geothermal Power Plant in Oriental Mindoro

Presented to
The School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
Mapúa University

In Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements of ME152P-2 – Power Plant Engineering for
the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering

Submitted by:

APAN, Jhon Jasper, D. – 2016142079

APONESTO, Kyle Adrian, A. – 2016144144

GABA, Reinhardt, A. – 2016141687

LACSON, Joshua Vince, B. – 2016141988

May 2021
 Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................5
1.1.1 Background of the Study...................................................................................5
1.1.2 Location of the Power Plant..............................................................................6
1.1.3 Load Curve of the Locality.................................................................................7
1.2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT.......................8
1.2.1 Principles of Geothermal Power Plant..............................................................8
1.2.2 Types of Geothermal Power Plant....................................................................8
1.2.3 The Energy Source Cycle...............................................................................11
1.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Geothermal Power Plant.........................12
CHAPTER 2: DESIGN, CALCULATION, AND COMPUTATION....................................15
2.1 SINGLE FLASH POWER PLANT CONFIGURATION..........................................15
2.2 THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE..................................................................................16
2.3 DESIGN AND SELECTION OF FLASH TANK......................................................19
2.4 DESIGN AND SELECTION OF STEAM TURBINE...............................................21
2.5 DESIGN AND SELECTION OF THE CONDENSER.............................................22
2.6 DESIGN AND SELECTION OF COOLING WATER PUMP..................................27
2.7 DESIGN AND SELECTION OF COOLING TOWER.............................................30
2.8 DETERMINING THE DESIGN CAPACITY............................................................34
CHAPTER 3: INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING.................................................34
3.1 STANDARDS.........................................................................................................34
3.1.1 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)................................................34
3.1.2 American Petroleum Institute (API).................................................................34
3.1.3 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)......................................35
3.1.4 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM.......................................35
3.1.5 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).................................36
3.1.6 International Code Council (ICC)....................................................................37
3.1.7 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)......................................37
3.1.8 National Electrical Manufacturer’s Association (NEMA).................................37
3.1.9 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)..................................................37
3.2 INSTALLATION......................................................................................................37
3.2.1 Requirement....................................................................................................37
 3.2.2 Main Components...........................................................................................39
3.3 Procedure...............................................................................................................41
3.4 COMMISSIONING.................................................................................................46
3.4.1 General Requirements and Initial Startup.......................................................48
3.4.2 Operational Checkout......................................................................................54
3.4.3 Hydrostatic Testing..........................................................................................54
CHAPTER 4: OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE.........................................................55
4.1 OPERATION..........................................................................................................56
4.1.1 Steam System.................................................................................................56
4.1.2 Water Condensation System..........................................................................56
4.1.3 Turbogenerator and Auxiliary Equipment.......................................................57
4.1.4 Electric System for the Plant...........................................................................58
4.1.5 Communication...............................................................................................59
4.1.6 Supervision and Control..................................................................................59
4.1.7 Protection........................................................................................................60
4.1.8 Fire Safety System..........................................................................................62
4.1.9 Miscellaneous Systems: Air compressors, Service Water..............................64
4.1.10 Environmental Control...................................................................................64
4.1.11 Wastewater....................................................................................................65
4.2 MAINTENANCE.....................................................................................................65
4.3 MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE................................................................................66
4.3.1 Routine Maintenance......................................................................................66
4.3.2 Major Maintenance..........................................................................................70
4.3.3 Corrective Maintenance..................................................................................76
4.4 Optimum maintenance strategy.............................................................................77
CHAPTER 5: ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS, LAWS AND STUDIES........................78
5.1 LEGAL ENVIRONMENTAL FRAMEWORK..........................................................78
5.1.1 Environmental Impact Assessment.................................................................80
5.1.2 Environmental Compliance Certificate............................................................83
5.1.3 The role of laws, regulations, standards, codes, guidelines and best practices
..................................................................................................................................84
5.2 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACT OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS
.....................................................................................................................................90
 5.2.1 Environmental Impact......................................................................................90
5.2.1.1 Environmental Pollution................................................................................90
5.2.1.2 Terrain Changes...........................................................................................92
5.2.2 Social Impact...................................................................................................92
5.3 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS.........93
REFENCES.....................................................................................................................94
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT AND INTRODUCTION

1.1.1 Background of the Study

Since its inception, electricity has become one of humanity’s fundamental needs.

The demand for electricity continues to increase globally and is projected to continually

increase further [ CITATION Int19 \l 13321 ]. As such, power generation also becomes

increasingly important. In the Philippines, power generation is heavily reliant on fossil

fuels. The installed capacity for the country in 2019 was 15,124 MW, more than 70% of

which was generated using fossil fuels [ CITATION Dep20 \l 13321 ]

However, this dependence on fossil fuels have resulted to several negative

consequences. The Philippines imports fossil fuels which have led to inflexibility, high

and unstable power costs, and trade deficits [ CITATION Ahm20 \l 13321 ]. In addition

to this, fossil fuels have been linked as primary contributors to environmental crisis

[ CITATION Nun19 \l 13321 ].

This necessitates the need for alternative means of power generation. The

Philippines is in the Pacific Ring of Fire, a series of tectonically active structures

surrounding the Pacific Ocean which has significant prospects for geothermal energy.

As such, power generation by geothermal means is an attractive prospect for the

Philippine energy mix. In fact, the Philippines is the second largest geothermal energy

producer globally [ CITATION Mas19 \l 13321 ].

One location in the Philippines that has been identified of having a geothermal

prospect is Oriental Mindoro [ CITATION Ben05 \l 13321 ]. A geothermal power plant is

yet to be established in the province. Oriental Mindoro Electric Cooperative, Inc.

(ORMECO), the electric distributor in the province serves 14 municipalities and one city

using power generated from fossil fuels, hydroelectric and wind energy (NEA, 2020).

In this paper, a design of a single flash geothermal power plant is proposed. The

power plant is intended to cater for the 30MW base load power demand in Oriental

Mindoro.

1.1.2 Location of the Power Plant

The proposed location of the power plant is at Brgy. Montelago, Naujan, Oriental

Mindoro. It is located on along the east coast of the Mindoro Island as shown in Figure 1

[ CITATION van16 \l 13321 ]. Geoscientific assessments have revealed 3-5 square

kilometers of geothermal prospect beneath Mt. Montelago, containing neutral-pH, alkali-

chloride, water-dominated system with a reservoir temperature reaching 180-200°C. It

has been determined that this location can be developed for electricity generation

[ CITATION Ben05 \l 13321 ].

Figure 1. Location of the power plant [ CITATION van16 \l 13321 ]

 1.1.3 Load Curve of the Locality

The load curve for the areas serviced by ORMECO released by the National

Electrification Administration (NEA) in 2020 and is shown in Figure 2. The base load for

the area on 2018 was determined to be 29.75 MW with a peak demand of 52.1 MW

(NEA, 2020). The proposed power plant is designed to cater only for the base load

demand.

Figure 2. Load curve for the areas serviced by ORMECO (NEA, 2020).

The distribution of the demand is shown in Figure 3. Majority of the demand

comes from residential establishments (91.5%). Commercial establishments account for

5.8% of the demand while industrial establishments account for 0.1% (NEA, 2020).

Figure 3. Distribution of electricity demands in Oriental Mindoro (NEA, 2020)

 1.2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT

1.2.1 Principles of Geothermal Power Plant

Heat is continuously generated from Earth’s interior due to decay of radioactive

isotopes in the crust and mantle. This heat energy is called geothermal energy, and it

can be extracted for human use such as in electric power generation by geothermal

power plants [ CITATION Lun18 \l 13321 ].

Geothermal energy can be extracted from geothermal reservoirs that have high

thermal gradients. Fluids, in the form of water or steam, are normally used to extract

geothermal energy from these reservoirs. These fluids are obtained by drilling

production wells to depths of up to 9,100 meters and pumping them to the Earth surface

or by natural artesian flow [ CITATION Lun18 \l 13321 ].

There are three ways of using geothermal energy for electric power generation,

and all geothermal power plant designs use geothermal fluids to obtain or produce

steam. The steam is used to drive generators that eventually produce electricity

[ CITATION Lun18 \l 13321 ].

The excess vapor or water at the end of geothermal processes are condensed

into liquid form and is pumped backed into the reservoir using the injection wells. Upon

reinjection to the ground, the geofluid is reheated by the heat of the Earth. It can be

extracted again for utilization which is why geothermal power is considered a renewable

form of energy [ CITATION Lun18 \l 13321 ].

1.2.2 Types of Geothermal Power Plant

 There are three main types of geothermal power plants. These are dry steam,

flash steam, and binary cycle geothermal power plants [ CITATION DiP12 \l 13321 ].

Dry Steam Geothermal Power Plant

The first type of geothermal power plant that was developed for commercial

purposes was dry steam geothermal power plant. Dry steam power plants draw power

from underground steam resources. The geofluid is composed entirely of steam and is

directly connected into the turbine/generator unit which makes it simpler and less

expensive compared to other types of geothermal power plants [ CITATION DiP12 \l

13321 ].

However, dry steam reservoirs are limited. There are only two large dry steam

reservoirs in the world found in Italy and California. Other small dry stream areas are in

Japan, Indonesia, New Zealand, and United States [ CITATION DiP12 \l 13321 ]. Figure

4 shows a simplified schematic diagram of a dry steam geothermal power plant.

Figure 4. Simplified schematic diagram of dry steam geothermal power plant (CEC, 2015)

Flash Steam Geothermal Power Plant

 In flash steam power plants, the geofluid is a liquid-vapor mixture. By lowering

the pressure, the geofluid mixture is separated into their vapor and liquid components.

The vapor component is used to drive the turbine [ CITATION DiP12 \l 13321 ]. This

power plant can only be used for geofluids whose temperature is above 182°C (CEC,

2015). Since the geothermal reservoir in Montelago has a temperature range of 180-

200°C, flash steam is the most suitable type of power plant for the project. A simplified

schematic diagram for flash steam geothermal power plants is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Simplified schematic diagram for flash steam geothermal power plants (CEC, 2015)

Geothermal Binary Cycle Geothermal Power Plant

resources in the world generally have relatively low to moderate temperature. For

low to moderate temperature geothermal resources, the binary cycle geothermal power

plant is a practical choice [ CITATION DiP12 \l 13321 ].

In binary cycle geothermal power plants, the geofluid is pumped to the earth

surface below its flashing point. It is sent to a heat exchanger to heat and vaporize a

working fluid with a much lower boiling point than water such as propane, butane,

pentane, or ammonia. The vaporized working fluid is used to drive the turbine

[ CITATION DiP12 \l 13321 ][ CITATION Cal15 \l 13321 ].

 This type of power plant allows the utilization of low temperature geothermal

resources. As such, they are the most widely used type of geothermal power plant.

However, they have low average power rating per unit compared to other types of

geothermal power plants [ CITATION DiP12 \l 13321 ]. Figure 6 shows a simplified

schematic diagram for binary cycle geothermal power plants.

Figure 6. Simplified schematic diagram for binary cycle geothermal power plants (CEC, 2015).

1.2.3 The Energy Source Cycle

Although all types of geothermal power plants use geothermal fluids as energy

source, they vary in the way in which energy is extracted from the geofluid. In this

paper, the proposed power plant takes the form of a single flash steam geothermal

power plant. Hence, only the energy source cycle for the said power plant is discussed.

Figure 7 shows the temperature-entropy diagram for single flash steam power

plant operation. The process begins at point 1 where a high-pressure geofluid is

pumped to the Earth’s surface. The flashing process (process 1-2) is considered as an

isenthalpic process as it occurs steadily without heat or work involved and changes in

potential and kinetic energies are considered negligible. After flashing, the liquid and

vapor components are separated isobarically. Process 2-3 accounts for the liquid
component sent back to the well while process 2-4 accounts for the steam being sent to

the turbine. Steam expands in the turbine in process 4-5. Process 4-5s represents the

ideal turbine expansion process. After expansion, the steam is condensed into a

saturated liquid in the condenser as shown by isobaric process 5-6 and pumped back

into the reservoir [ CITATION DiP12 \l 13321 ].

Figure 7. Temperature-entropy diagram for single flash steam power plant (DiPippo, 2012).

1.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Geothermal Power Plant

In this section, the advantages and disadvantages associated with geothermal

power plants.

Advantages of Geothermal Power Plant

Geothermal power plants have several advantages over traditional power plants

and other plants that run through renewable energy.

The most obvious advantage of geothermal power plants to traditional power

plants is its environmental advantage. The use of geothermal energy against fossil fuels

can reduce CO2 emission and air pollutants that harm the environment. The level of CO 2
and pollutants emitted by geothermal power plants are negligible compared to the

amount of energy produced (ESMAP, 2012).

Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source as heat is continuously

generated by Earth through radioactive decay. Although the energy source depends on

reservoir of geofluid, the amount of material extracted is reinjected back to the reservoir.

Hence, when managed appropriately, the technology is sustainable (ESMAP, 2012).

The market value of fuels fluctuates; hence, fossil fuel power plants are subject

to varying electricity costs and energy price shocks. Since geothermal power plants are

not dependent on fuel, geothermal power plants provide stable electricity costs

(ESMAP, 2012)[ CITATION Ave19 \l 13321 ].

Compared to other power plants that rely on renewable energy, geothermal

power plants are reliable. Once they are operational, geothermal power plants can

provide a steady output of electricity for decades unlike wind and solar power plants

whose operations rely on external factors (ESMAP, 2012)[ CITATION Ave19 \l 13321 ].

Geothermal power plants have great capacities. They can be scaled to produce

several hundred megawatts of power. Land and space are constraints to achieve high

scales as land and space requirements of geothermal power plants are less than of

hydroelectric power plants or coal power plants and are comparable to that of wind or

solar power plants (ESMAP, 2012).

Geothermal power plants have low operating costs. They require minimal

maintenance compared to other types of power plants. As such, they are one of the

least cost options in producing power (ESMAP, 2012)[ CITATION Ave19 \l 13321 ].
 Furthermore, geothermal power generation is an established technology. Hence,

the operational risks and maintenance requirements associated with this type of power

plants are well-known and are manageable (ESMAP, 2012).

Disadvantages of Geothermal Power Plant

Although geothermal power plants have many advantages, they also have some

limitations.

One of the biggest issues in geothermal power plants is that they are site

specific. Geothermal resources are often located in remote areas. As such transmission

connections and other infrastructure needs to be constructed to make these areas

accessible. This can increase the cost of indirect land requirements or rights of way

(ESMAP, 2012).

Although geothermal power plants are posed to have environmental advantages,

they also pose some environmental hazards. In some areas, the geofluid may contain

toxic chemicals and even substantial amounts of greenhouse gases (ESMAP, 2012)

[ CITATION Ave19 \l 13321 ]. Furthermore, although the area occupied by geothrmal

power plants are relatively smaller than some types of power plants, the area of the

steam field may increase which can lead to increased land use and environmental

issues (ESMAP, 2012).

There is also a risk that due to high amount of geofluid withdrawal, geothermal

reservoirs may become depleted. Although proper reinjection may prevent this,

solutions for this may be complex and expensive (ESMAP, 2012).

Geothermal power plants are hard to finance. They have high upfront risk and

require huge capital investment, especially in the initial exploration and drilling phases.
This is especially true for large scale geothermal power plants that require extensive

drilling (ESMAP, 2012).

Although little maintenance is needed, the maintenance procedure for

geothermal power plants can be quite sophisticated. Additional costs are often incurred

due to periodic drilling of wells to replace wells that have lost their steam production

potential (ESMAP, 2012).

Furthermore, it has been suggested that the use of geothermal resources may

cause seismic instability. Several studies have linked geothermal explorations to

seismic activity. Though seismic avitities are often insignificant, there is still a risk that it

can lead to catasthropic events [ CITATION Ave19 \l 13321 ].

CHAPTER 2: DESIGN, CALCULATION, AND COMPUTATION

2.1 SINGLE FLASH POWER PLANT CONFIGURATION

The configuration of the power plant is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Configuration of the power plant

 The geothermal fluid will be obtained from five production wells. In each

production well, a wellhead valve will be used to reduce the pressure of the fluid to the

flash tank pressure. Each well will also have a flash tank where the steam will be

generated. The fluid retained after the flashing process will be reinjected into the

reservoir using the reinjection wells.

The steam produced from the five well-separator units will be collected in the

steam receiver tank. The steam will then be sent to drive the turbine-generator unit to

produce electricity.

After undergoing expansion, the steam will be turned back into a fluid in the

surface condenser. Cooling water will be used to remove heat from the steam. A cooling

tower will be used to cool the cooling water as it reenters the condenser. Some part of

the condensed fluid will be used as make-up water for the cooling tower. The remaining

fluid will be reinjected into the reservoir.

2.2 THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE

The T-s diagram for the proposed geothermal diagram is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10. T-s diagram for the power plant

 State 1 represents the condition of the geothermal fluid at the reservoir. The

temperature of the geothermal fluid is 200°C. The fluid is assumed to be a saturated

liquid, and the corresponding pressure is 1.5538 MPa. The enthalpy of the geofluid is:

kJ
h1 =hf @ 200° C sat . temp=852.45
kg

State 2 represents the liquid-vapor mixture obtained after the flashing process.

The flashing process is assumed to be isenthalpic; hence, the enthalpy and quality at

State 2 are:

kJ
h2 =h1=852.45
kg

kJ kJ
852.45 −670.56
h −h kg kg
x 2= 2 f @ P =600kPa = =0.0872∨8.72%
h fg @ P=600 kPa kJ
2086.3
kg

The liquid-vapor mixture is separated isobarically into its liquid and vapor

component. The separator pressure is set to 600 kPa, adjusted from the average 620

kPa separator pressure for single flash power plants reported from literature

[ CITATION Zar14 \l 13321 ]. State 3 represents the liquid component while State 4

represents the vapor component. Their properties are:

kJ
h3 =hf @ 600 kPa=670.56
kg

kJ
h 4=h g @600 kPa=2756.8
kg

kJ
s4 =s g @ 600 kPa=6.76
kg−K
 State 5s represents the working fluid after undergoing the ideal isentropic turbine

expansion process. The condenser pressure is set to 10 kPa, adjusted from the

average 12 kPa condenser pressure for single flash power plants [ CITATION Zar14 \l

13321 ]. The properties are:

kJ
s5 s =s 4 =6.76
kg−K

kJ kJ
6.76 −0.6493
s 5 s−s f @ P =10kPa kg−K kg
x 5 s= = =0.81466∨81.466 %
s fg @ P=10 kPa kJ
7.5009
kg

kJ kJ kJ
h5 s=h f @ P=10 kPa + x 5 s ( hfg @ P =10 kPa ) =191.83
kg (
+ 0.81466 2392.8
kg )
=2141.15
kg

However, the turbine expansion process is not actually isentropic. State 5

represents the actual state of the wet mixture entering the condenser. Turbines used in

single flash power plants have typical isentropic efficiencies of 81 to 85% [ CITATION

Zar14 \l 13321 ]. Assuming an isentropic efficiency of 85% for the turbine, the actual

enthalpy and quality after turbine expansion are:

h 4−h5
ηt =
h4 −h5 s

kJ kJ kJ kJ
h5 =h4 −ηt ( h4−h5 s ) =2756.8
kg (
−0.85 2756.8 −2141.15
kg kg )
=2233.50
kg

kJ kJ
2233.50 −191.83
h −h kg kg
x 5= 5 f @ P=10kPa = =0.8533∨85.33 %
h fg @ P=10 kPa kJ
2392.8
kg
 At the exhaust of the condenser or State 6, it is assumed that the wet mixture

has been converted into a saturated liquid. The enthalpy of the liquid is

kJ
h6 =h f @ 10 kPa sat . press .=191.83
kg

The state working fluid during the entire cycle is summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. State of the working fluid during the cycle

Temperature Pressure Enthalpy Quality
State
(°C) (kPa) (kJ/kg) (%)
1 200 1553.8 852.45 0
2 158.85 600 852.45 8.72
3 158.85 600 670.56 0
4 158.85 600 2756.8 100
5s 45.81 10 2141.15 81.50
5 45.81 10 2233.50 85.33
6 45.81 10 191.83 0

2.3 DESIGN AND SELECTION OF FLASH TANK

The typical efficiency of single flash power plants at a given reservoir enthalpy is

shown in Figure 11. The enthalpy of the geothermal fluid in the geothermal prospect in

Montelago was determined to be 852.45 kJ/kg (See Table 1). At this enthalpy, the

typical single flash geothermal power plant efficiency is approximately 5%.

 Figure 11. Efficiency of single flash power plant vs. reservoir enthalpy [ CITATION Zar14 \l

13321 ]

This efficiency can be used to estimate the total amount of groundwater needed

to achieve the rated capacity of the plant.

Power output
η¿−all =
ṁ gw ( h1 )

Power output 30,000 kW kg

ṁgw = = ≈ 700
η¿−all ( h1 ) kJ s
(
0.05 852.45
kg )
The total mass of steam that will be produced after flashing can be computed as

kg kg
(
ṁ s =x2 ṁ gw =0.0872 700
s )
=61.03
s

Hence, the total amount of liquid to be reinjected into the reservoir is

kg kg kg
ṁ i=ṁ gw− ṁ s=700 −61.03 =638.97
s s s

Since there are five wells and flash tank separators, the mass flow rates for each

unit are

kg
ṁ gw per production well=140
s
 kg
ṁ s per separator=12.2
s

kg
ṁ i per injection well=127.8
s

The specifications for the flash tank are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. Flash tank specifications

Number of units 5
Operating pressure 600 kPa
Mass of groundwater per unit 140 kg/s
Mass of steam produced per unit 12.2 kg/s
Mass of the liquid for reinjection per unit 127.8 kg/s

Manufacturers will be asked to customize flash tanks that will meet the

specifications stated in Table 2.

2.4 DESIGN AND SELECTION OF STEAM TURBINE

The work of the turbine, at 85% isentropic efficiency, is

kg kJ kJ
Ẇ t =ṁ s ( h 4−h 5 )=61.03
s (
2756.8 −2233.50
kg kg)=31,937 kW

The steam turbine must have a rated capacity of 30 MW to sustain the base load

demand. The inlet and outlet pressure of the steam turbine are 600 kPa and 10 kPa,

respectively. The steam entering the turbine has a temperature of 158.85°C, and the

turbine must be able to handle 61.03 kg/s of steam. The specifications required for the

turbine are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3. Turbine requirements

Rated Capacity 30 MW
Steam pressure 600 kPa
Steam temperature 160°C
 Exhaust pressure 10 kPa
Mass of steam 61.03 kg/s

The selected turbine that meets the requirement for this power plant is the

Packaged Type Geothermal Power Generation unit manufactured by Fuji Electric

[ CITATION Fuj21 \l 13321 ]. The unit is shown in Figure 12. A cross -sectional view of

the turbine is shown in Figure 13.

Figure 12. Packaged Type Geothermal Power Generation unit [ CITATION Fuj21 \l

13321 ]

Figure 13. Cross-sectional view of the selected turbine [ CITATION Yam10 \l 13321 ]
 Only information about the capacity of the turbine (30 MW) is made available by

the manufacturer online. However, the unit has been used in Unit 5 of the geothermal

power plant in Svartsengi, Iceland. The design parameters of the said power plant are

shown in Table 4 [ CITATION Yam10 \l 13321 ]. Comparing the operating parameters of

the proposed power plant and the Svartsengi power plant, it can be seen that the

turbine is suitable for the proposed power plant.

Table 4. Turbine specifications for Svartsengi power plant

Rated Capacity 30 MW
Steam pressure 650 kPa
Steam temperature 163°C
Exhaust pressure 10 kPa
Mass of steam 73 kg/s

2.5 DESIGN AND SELECTION OF THE CONDENSER

kg 2.20462lb
ṁ s =62
s( 1 kg )
=136.6864 lb/s

0.145038 psi
Pcondenser =10 kPa ( 1 kPa ) =1.45038 psi

At the condenser pressure, the temperature and specific volume are

T sat =114.4768 ℉

ft 3
v=0.0161679071
lb

The temperature of the cooling water at entering the condenser is set to 80ºF.

The terminal difference between the steam and the cooling water at the outlet is set to

10ºF.

T cw ,out =T sat −θi

T cw ,out =104.4768℉
 Solving for the log mean temperature difference of the condenser,

T cw ,∈¿
log Mean Temperature Difference (θ¿¿ m)=T cw ,out − ¿¿
ln ¿ ¿ ¿

104.4768℉ −80 ℉
θm =
114.4768 ℉−80 ℉
(
ln
114.4768 ℉−104.4768 ℉ )
θm =19.7760° F

The temperature profile of the condenser is shown in Figure 14.

Figure 14. Temperature profile at the condenser

The tubes are designed to be 18 BWG, admiralty metal with 7/8” diameter. The

velocity of the cooling water is set to 7 fps. The cleanliness factor is set to 0.85 and the

prime mover is set to 1.0. Other factors are obtained as c=263 , F t=1 ,∧F p =1.

Figure 15. Heat transfer coefficient factors

 The heat transfer coefficient for the tubes is computed as

BTU
Ú =c √ vel=263 √ 7 fps=695.8326 2
ft −hr−℉

Applying the correction factors,

BTU
(
U =( Ú ) ( Ft )( F m ) ( F c )( F p ) = 695.8326 2
ft −hr−℉ )
(1)(1)(0.85)(1)

BTU
U =591.4577 2
ft −hr−℉

It was suggested by the Heat Exchanger Institute that for surface condensers for

non-reheat turbines, the change in specific enthalpy is h fg =950 BTU /lb . The surface

area required is

BTU
A=
(
(ms ) 950
lb )
(U )(θ m)

lb 3600 s BTU
A=
( 136.6864 )(
s 1hr )( 950
lb )
BTU
(591.4577 ft −hr −℉ )
(19.7760 ° F )
2

A=39,965.8697 ft 2

The required mass of the cooling water is

Q R=mcw ( Cpw ) ( t out −t ¿ )

QR
m cw=
( Cpw ) ( t out −t ¿ )

lb 3600 s BTU
mcw =
( 136.6864 )(
s 1 hr )( 950
lb )
BTU
(1 lb−℉ )( 104.4768 ℉−80 ℉ )
 lb
m cw=19,098,390.64
hr

Converting to volume,
mw
Vol w =
ρw

lb 1 hr
Vol w =
19,098,390.64 (
hr 60 min )
gal
(7.48 3 )
lb ft
62.40 3
ft

Vol w =38,155.9729 gpm

Solving the number and length of tubes using data shown in Figure 16,

Figure 16. Factors for condenser tubes

Vol w 38,155.9729 gpm

No .of tubes= =
factor (vel) 1.48 (7 fps)

tubes
No .of tubes=3,683.0090
pass

Area 39,965.8697 ft 2
Length of tubes= =
(no . of tubes)(factor) ft 2
(3,683.0090)(0.2297 )
ft
Length of tubes=47.2417 ft

Based on recommended tube lengths shown in Figure 17, for a condenser

surface area of over 20,000 sq. ft., the length of the tubes must be 22-30 ft. In order to

satisfy this condition, the configuration of the condenser is set to be a two-pass

condenser, and the number and length of tubes are adjusted.

Figure 17. Recommended tube lengths

Length of tubes
Actuallength= +[2 ( tube sheet thickness )]
no . of pass

47.2417 ft 1 1 ft
Actuallength=
2 pass 2(
+[2 inches x
12inches
] )
Actuallength=23.7042 ft=24 ft

Actual No . of tubes=( no . of tubes)(no . of pass)

tubes
Actual No . of tubes=( 3,683.0090 )(2 pass )
pass

Actual No . of tubes=7,366.018 tubes=7,367 tubes

The specifications required for the condenser are summarized in Table 5.

Table 5. Condenser requirements

Type Shell-and-tube type surface
condenser
Pass 2
Operating pressure 10 kPa
Mass flow rate of cooling water 2410 kg/s (19,098,390.64 lb/hr)
Volume flow rate of the cooling 8670 m3/hr (38,155.9729 GPM)
water
 Cooling water inlet temperature 26.67ºC (80ºF)
Cooling water outlet temperature 40.26ºC (104.48ºF)
Velocity of the cooling water 7 ft/s
Tube material 18 BWG, Admiralty Metal
Tube diameter 7/8”
Tube length 24 ft
Number of tubes 7,367

Due to the specificity of the condenser, the developers will find manufacturers for

the condenser to be custom-made based on the parameters listed in Table 5.

2.6 DESIGN AND SELECTION OF COOLING WATER PUMP

With a two-pass configuration and a cooling water velocity of 7 fps, the friction

loss on the condenser can be computed using the factors shown in Figure 18.

Figure 18. Friction loss factors on the tube

h f =( no .of pass ) [( Actual length )( factor ) + Pressure Loss ]

h f =( 2 pass ) [ ( 24 ft ) ( 0.325 ) +1.4 ft ]

h f =18.40 ft
 The cooling water leaving from the condenser will be discharged into the cooling

tower. The point of discharge within the cooling tower is 10 m (32.81 ft) above the inlet

of the cooling water to the pump. Therefore, the total dynamic head is

H T =∆ z +h f =32.81 ft +18.40 ft=51.21 ft

The density of the cooling water is

1 1 lb
ρ= = =61.8509
v ft 3
ft 3
0.0161679071
lb

With pump efficiency set to 75%, the required brake horsepower of the pump is

go

BP=
( )
(H T )(Vol w )( ρ)
gc
ft 3 −lbf
33,000 (η)
hp−min

ft
32.20

BP=
(
(51.21 ft ) 5,101.0659
ft3

min )( lb
61.8509 3

ft 3−lbf
ft ) ( 32.2
s
lbm−ft
lbf −s2
)
33,000 (0.75)
hp−min

BP=652.81 HP

The summary for the cooling water pump specifications is shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Cooling water pump requirements

Volume flow rate of cooling water 38,155.9729 GPM
Total head 51.21 ft
Power requirements 652.81 hp

The selected pump is Goulds Pump 3180, XL-2, 30X30-41 model. The operating

parameters required falls on the hydraulic coverage of the pump as shown in Figure 19.

The dimensions and design of the pump are shown in Figures 20 and 21, respectively.
Figure 19. Hydraulic coverage of the selected pump [ CITATION Gou \l 13321 ]

Figure 20. Pump dimensions [ CITATION Gou \l 13321 ]

 Figure 21. Design of the pump

2.7 DESIGN AND SELECTION OF COOLING TOWER

For the calculations for the cooling tower, the information regarding the cooling water

has been computed in the calculations for the condenser. For the air entering the cooling tower,

the temperature is set to 29°C while and the relative humidity is 76% which are average values

according to online sources [ CITATION Tim21 \l 13321 ]. The air leaving the cooling tower is

assumed to be 27°C and saturated. A system diagram for the cooling tower is shown in Figure

22.

Figure 22. System diagram for the cooling tower

 Using the steam table to obtain water properties,

@ water inlet

kJ
h w ,i=168.6542
kg

@ water outlet

kJ
h w ,o=111.3706
kg

Using psychrometric chart to obtain air properties,

@air inlet (T = 29°C, RH = 76%)

kJ
h a ,i=78 ; SH a , i=0.019
kg

@ air outlet (T=27°C, RH=100)

kJ
h a ,o=86 ; SH a , o=0.023
kg

From energy balance,

ṁ w ,i hw , i−ṁ w ,o h w ,o= ṁa ( h a ,o −ha ,i )

kg kJ kJ kJ kJ
2410
s (
168.6542
kg )
− ṁ w, o 111.3706
kg (
=ṁ a 86 −78
kg kg ) ( )
ṁa=50,807.08−13.92 ṁw , o

From mass balance

ṁ w ,i −ṁ w ,o= ṁ a ( SH a , o−SH a ,i )

kg
2410 −ṁ w , o=( 50,807.08−13.92 ṁ w , o ) ( 0.023−0.019 )
s
 kg
ṁ w , o=2,336.9
s

The mass of air is

kg
ṁ a=50,807.08−13.92 ( 2,336.9 ) =18,277
s

The mass of the make-up water is

kg
m make−up=m w ,i−mw , o=( 2410−2,336.9 )
s

kg
m make−up=73.1
s

The heat needed to be rejected is

lb BTU
Q= ṁ s h fg =136.6864 (
s
950
lb )( 1.055
1
BTU
kw

)
s

Q=136,993.94 KW

Checking if the air conditions are sufficient to reject this amount of heat,

kg kg kg kg
Q=18,277
s s(
86 −78
s )
=146,216
s

The requirements for the cooling tower is summarized in Table 7.

Table 7. Cooling tower specifications

Mass of water entering 2,410 kg/s
Mass of water leaving 2,336.9 kg/s
Volume flow rate of water 8670 m3/hr
Mass of air 18,277 kg/s
Mass of make-up water 73.1 kg/s
Heat to be removed 136,993.94 kW (117,793,585.55 kcal/hr)

The selected cooling tower is the CING cooling tower, shown in Figure 23, manufactured

by YWCT. The CING-5500-1 model is selected. The cooling capacity for the said unit is
20,000,000 kcal/hr per cell; hence, 6 cells of the cooling tower are needed. The specification for

the model is shown in Figure 24. Additional details are shown in Figure 25.

Figure 23. CING model cooling tower

Figure 24. CING model specifications

 Figure 25. Details about the CING cooling tower

2.8 DETERMINING THE DESIGN CAPACITY

Typical generator efficiencies used in geothermal plants ranges from 95.7 to 99%

[ CITATION Zar14 \l 13321 ]. Taking 99% as the generator efficiency, the electrical

power that is produced by the turbine is

EP=ηg x Ẇ t =31,937 kW x 0.99

EP=31,617.63 kW =31.6 MW

The efficiency of power plant is

EP 31,617.63 kW
η¿−all = x 100= x 100
ṁ gw ( h1 ) kg kJ
700
s(852.45
kg)
η¿−all =5.3 %
 This efficiency is close to the typical 3-6% efficiency of single flash steam

geothermal power plant associated with the enthalpy of the geothermal reservoir as

shown in Figure 11.

CHAPTER 3: INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING 

3.1 STANDARDS 

3.1.1 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 

60-16.................. Drinking Water Treatment Chemicals – Health Effects

3.1.2 American Petroleum Institute (API) 

611-14................. General-Purpose Steam Turbines for Petroleum,

Chemical, and Gas Industry Service

612-14................. Petroleum, Petrochemical and Natural Gas Industries –

Steam Turbines – Special-Purpose Applications

3.1.3 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) 

B31.1-16............... Power Piping

3.1.4 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM 

E1-14.................. Standard Specification for ASTM Liquid-in-Glass

Thermometers
E947-15................ Standard Specification for Sampling Single-Phase

Geothermal Liquid or Steam for Purposes of Chemical Analysis

E957-11................ Standard Terminology Relating to Geothermal Energy

E1008-09............... Standard Practice for Installation, Inspection, and

Maintenance of Valve-body Pressure-relief Methods for Geothermal and

Other High-Temperature Liquid Applications

E1068-09............... Standard Test Method for Testing Nonmetallic Seal

Materials by Immersion in a Simulated Geothermal Test Fluid

E1069-09............... Standard Test Method for Testing Polymeric Seal

Materials for Geothermal and/or High Temperature Service Under Sealing

Stress

E1675-12............... Standard Practice for Sampling Two-Phase

Geothermal Fluid for Purposes of Chemical Analysis

A213/A213M-17.......... Standard Specification for Seamless Ferritic and

Austenitic Alloy-Steel Boiler, Superheater, and Heat-Exchanger Tubes

A249/A249M-16.......... Standard Specification for Welded Austenitic Steel

Boiler, Superheater, Heat-Exchanger, and Condenser Tubes

A268/A268M–16.......... Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded

Ferritic and Martensitic Stainless Steel Tubing for General Service

 A269/A269M–15.......... Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded

Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing for General Service

A789/A789M-17.......... Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded

Ferritic/Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing for General Service

3.1.5 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

519-14................. Recommended Practices and Requirements for

Harmonic Control in Electric Power Systems

1547.2-08.............. Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources

with Electric Power Systems

1561-07................ Guide for Optimizing the Performance and Life of Lead-

Acid Batteries in Remote Hybrid Systems

3.1.6 International Code Council (ICC) 

IBC-15................. International Building Code

3.1.7 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 

9001-15................ Quality Management Systems – Requirements

14001-15............... Environmental management systems -- Requirements

with guidance for use

6759-80................ Seamless steel tubes for heat exchangers

 3.1.8 National Electrical Manufacturer’s Association (NEMA) 

250-14................. Enclosures for Electrical Equipment (1,000 Volts

Maximum)

3.1.9 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 

70-17.................. National Electrical Code (NEC)

3.2 INSTALLATION 

3.2.1 Requirement 

  A. Install the geothermal system in accordance with the NEC, this section, and

the manufacturer’s requirements.  

//B. In seismic areas, systems shall be adequately anchored and braced per details on

structural contract documents to withstand seismic forces at locations where installed.//

C. Prior to any excavation, trenching, or drilling, all buried utilities, drainage, and

irrigation systems shall be located and flagged by the appropriate utility and Contractor

representative.

D. Drilling Contractor shall be a National Ground Water Association (NGWA) Certified

Well Driller (CWD).

//E. Surface Discharge shall comply with Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) National

Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) regulations.//

//F. Reinjection Well shall comply with Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Underground

Injection Control (UIC) regulations for Class V (Shallow Non-Hazardous Injection)

wells.//

G. Borehole construction shall be performed per International Ground Source Heat

Pump Association (IGSHPAI) Design and Installation Guide, latest edition.

1. Surface water shall not be used as a source of water during the drilling of a borehole

unless it is obtained from a municipal water supply system.  Water used for drilling

purposes shall be potable water that contains a free chlorine residual of no less than 10

milligrams per liter.  Chlorine residual level shall be checked with chlorine test strips.

H. Piping installation shall be compliant with ASME B31.1, and ICC IMC Section 1206.

I. Install control and instrumentation as required by the manufacturer.

J. Provide safety signage per NEC.

3.2.2 Main Components 

A. Geothermal Well and Piping Systems

A heat source, a heat sink, and a heat exchanger are the three main components

of a geothermal system. The heat source is usually the earth, and the heat sink is

usually a built environment (in general, a structure). The heat exchanger is made up of

one or more components that contain a fluid and transfer heat from the heat source to
the heat sink. Moreover, a piping system is used to connect the chain of parts and

equipment that serves as a way for the working fluid to circulate in the system. 

Figure 26. Geothermal Well.

B.  Heat Rejection Equipment (condenser) and cooling tower

Heat rejection equipment is used to extract heat from chilled water, refrigeration,

processing, and other types of equipment. Cooling towers, fluid coolers, and

condensers are examples of heat rejection equipment (air-cooled and evaporative). To

extract heat from the device, air is passed over a coil or wetted medium.With the use of

water cooled condenser, the cooling tower circulates water to the shell and tube

condenser, where it absorbs heat from the condensing refrigerant before falling through

a media when subjected to a cross-flow or counterflow current of ambient air pushed or

caused through the cooling tower by a fan.

 Figure 27. Condenser and Cooling Tower Diagram

C.  Pumps.

pumps are used to move the fluids from underground. Also, it is used to circulate

different kinds of fluid as it adds pressure to the fluid. Water for the cooling system also

uses pumps  to operate its function in the system.

D. Radiators

Another option of heat exchangers, are devices that move thermal energy from

one medium to another for cooling and heating purposes.

Others are: Wiring, Wiring Specialties, DC-AC Inverter, Geothermal Energy Storage,

Battery Option, Turbine Generator Modules, Instrumentation and Metering, Switchgear,

DC and AC disconnects , Combiner boxes, Monitoring and control systems, including

appropriate interfacing with existing facility data collection systems.

3.3 Procedure 

Geologist / Geothermal Energy Consultant

Visit the proposed site to get a sense of the general topography and geology of

the project region.

Current environments, geographical characteristics, existing land use, listing of

identified faults, and signs of recent and historical flood marks are all evaluated.
Collect and review additional data such as follows: topographic maps and surveys,

aerial photographs, satellite topography data, site geotechnical information, regional

geological maps, data on existing power distribution network and demand, current

Power Development Plan for the region, Identify any potential fatal flaws in site location

or physical surroundings.

Oversee the sub-contracted well drilling business, which includes reviewing the

down hole boring logs, ensuring proper casing positioning, grouting, site quality

assurance, and general well construction.

 Monitor the temperature readings

 Supervise any heat source expansion, sample temperatures over a seven-day

span, and include a report on the heat source's capability.

Senior Geothermal Energy Consultant / Project Manager

 Review and confirm that the results of geotechnical analysis and test drills on two

pilot wells support the proposed site’s suitability for the geothermal project

construction.

 Provide preliminary layout/drawings of the geothermal power plant facility that will

produce 30 MW of power, showing the location and orientation on the site of

significant access roads, structures, equipment and other facilities.

 Outline technical description of the geothermal power plant facility, including all

systems and one-line electrical diagrams.

 Draw a schematic diagram of transmission lines (with capacities) on the

proponent's side of the point of interconnection, as well as the system's

interconnection point(s).
  Prepare a full rundown of the project's equipment and materials, such as civil

work, drilling rigs (rental or purchase), well casings, grout/insulation materials,

generation equipment, balance of plant, instrumentation and controls, and

electrical interconnection.

 For budget pricing, gather information from potential suppliers.

 Collaborate with other consultants/specialists to secure the tools needed to meet

the team's needs.

Environmental and Social Specialist

 Conduct an environmental and social baseline assessment of flora, fauna,

watersheds, and other factors, and identify likely mitigation strategies for any

project-related impacts on air, water, subsoil, flora, fauna, or noise.

 Examine all relevant laws and regulations, as well as all permitting standards

(geothermal and renewable energy), municipal construction requirements, right-

of-way provisions, and zoning codes, all of which must be considered before the

project can be introduced.

 Geothermal subsurface rights need to be reviewed and recommendations made.

 Determining rules and guidelines should need to be followed. To compile a list of

environmental, social, and developmental impact concerns, interview residents

and local officials.

 Conduct a thorough Social Acceptability Assessment (SAA), which should

include public consultations for those who would be affected.

 Prepare an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) study that analyzes the

geothermal power plant facility's environmental impacts.

Geotechnical Engineer

 Examine the geologist's site geologic conditions, as well as any EIA problems

related to geology (faults, instability, and structure), and estimate depth to 200

degrees Celsius.

 Review and confirm the Sponsor's geothermal power plant facility well design,

well field design, and TOP Facility design to ensure their adaptability to site

conditions based on the results of the geologic reviews and geotechnical

research.

 Using geothermal power plant guidelines/procedures, develop site-specific

procedures for well casing, well logging, and telescoping.

 Prepare procedures for geothermal power plant grout, thermo-couplings and

capping.

 With the financial specialist, prepare cost estimates for drilling up to 50 wells.

Gather information on all development issues of the geothermal project through

characterizing the site from a land use and heat source perspective and define

scope for further detailed site investigative studies, if any.

 Determine designs for reducing environmental impacts and estimating costs for

equipment access and installation by identifying construction conditions.

 Verify and validate the geotechnical study to assess turbine selections, TOP

Facility design, and overall project economics for energy power sales to the grid.

 Define the options for turbines and other equipment, as well as the terms,

conditions, and warranties that may need to be addressed in manufacturer

contracts.
  Optimize the layout, considering any restriction zones that might be necessary to

avoid interfering with other site users.

 Assist the local environmental consultants and authorities with any technical

input required for the geothermal facility's design or service.

 Prepare part lists for the preliminary design of the geothermal power plant facility

grids.

 Examine the geothermal power plant facility's power quality to see if it complies

with grid codes.

 Calculate the total energy supplied from the geothermal power plant facility grid

to the main power grid using the grid integration strategy and the facility and

main grids' availability and fault characteristics.

Power Plant Engineer

 Determine physical requirements for initial 10 geothermal wells with expansion to

50 geothermal wells.

 Determine any physical impediments for any options.

 Incorporate well design into top well pad and overall facility design.

 The geothermal power plant top facility design can be adapted to site-specific

conceptual design.

 Review turbine specs and recommend back-up measures to ensure constant

energy supply.

Geothermal Energy Transmission Specialist

  Develop an interconnection strategy to transfer power from the geothermal power

plant facility to the Luzon grid's nearest connection point. Determine if any

additional facilities are needed to ensure the system's adequacy.

 Prepare a Grid System Impact Study (SIS) on the geothermal power plant

facility's interconnection with the NGCP's Luzon transmission system, which

involves an interconnection plan, thermal assessment, voltage assessment,

stability analysis, fault current assessment, and operational assessment.

 Transmission plan

Financial Specialist

 Examine your existing funding plans and your financing strategy. Make

suggestions for enhancements, threats, and contingencies.

 Conduct a base case and sensitivity analysis of projected adjustments in all

external variables that could affect the Project's profitability, such as waste costs,

energy costs, interest rates, investment costs, and O&M costs, and outline

realistic plans and methods to mitigate these risks.

3.4 COMMISSIONING 

Figure 28. Testing and Commissioning Flow Chart.

 The success of geothermal power plants lies along the safety and efficiency of

the power plant. Before commercial operation, the final stage is testing and

commissioning to ensure the standards are met for a safe and efficient operation. Also,

cost-effective operation is also part of commissioning since geothermal power plant

development has a high initial investment cost. Location is the first factor that should be

checked to ensure there is ample amount of steam or thermal energy present and ready

to use for geothermal power plant electricity production. Also, future expansion as the

required electricity demand increases, should be considered. Furthermore, since

geothermal power plants use renewable energy from the thermal energy of natural

underground fluid, the power plant should be operated in a controlled manner to ensure

that there would be no negative impact on the environment. Furthermore, the safety of

the customers, environment, and power plant itself are tested and checked to ensure

that it operates along with the standards. For geothermal power plants, steam from a

natural underground source of thermal energy and fluids are used to propel the turbine

for electricity generation, thus, the quality of the steam or fluid extracted underground

should be tested to ensure the standards and the power plant requirements are

achieved. Both equipment and facilities must be thoroughly inspected and tested to

ensure that the plant can operate safely, efficiently, and effectively in both normal and

emergency situations. Furthermore, contingency plans are important, and the plant

should foresee future danger and scenarios together with the proper protocols to

mitigate these problems (Snaebjorn Jonsson, 2018).  

In geothermal power plants, the geothermal wells and piping system are one

most vital component. To maximize the efficiency and power output of the geothermal
power plant, pressure valves and steam quality and composition are tested. With the

use of the control system and pressure controlling valves,  proper inlet pressure at the

steam turbine is achieved. Drilling well design should be checked to ensure that there

would be no negative impact on the environment like soil degradation. The control and

distribution panels should be tested beforehand in the factory because only external

wiring and cabling can test when the power plant is built (Snaebjorn Jonsson, 2018).  

In summary, the geothermal power plant should be checked and tested based on

the standard and the power plant design requirement to ensure the safety and the

efficiency of the operation. In addition, contingency plans and expansion plans making

the power plant “future-proof” are important. Lastly, planned maintenance schedules are

included.

3.4.1 General Requirements and Initial Startup

The aim of commissioning and testing is to ensure that the expected and

engineered properties of equipment and systems are met in practice. At the

manufacturing point, most mechanical and electrical equipment used in power plants is

highly standardized (Factory testing). However, for initial startup, it is required to further

test the capability of the equipment and if the system works properly and as expected.

The power plant's start-up and commissioning are the final phase before it goes into full

service. The key goal is to refine the processing and injection systems so that energy

can be recovered and used as efficiently as possible. This reduces operating costs,

increases investment returns, and ensures that geothermal power is delivered reliably.

To compensate for any decrease in productivity or changes in the reinjection strategy as

the resource responds to exploitation, new development and reinjection wells may be
required. It can take several months to fine-tune the performance of the power plant and

all other facilities, including the pressures from the wells.

The following tests are conducted to ensure the safety, efficiency, and reliability

of the geothermal power plant are up to standards:

a. Acceptance tests - applicable for all equipment, cabling, piping etc. These

tests are to ensure that individual equipment or assemblies are

manufactured, installed and connected (piping and wiring) as required.

b. Control system test - these tests are conducted carefully and continuously

by the testing team, based on an extended control system signal list.

c. Cold commissioning – to test the reaction, endurance, and performance of

all the equipment under such temperature.

d. Hot commissioning – to test the reaction, endurance, and performance of

all the equipment under such temperature.

Each of the conducted tests are divided into sublevels for more specific test:

 Factory Acceptance Tests, FAT – is conducted according to contractual

stipulations by vendors at the vendor’s workshop. 

 Site Acceptance Tests, SAT. Conducted according to contractual stipulations by

vendors after installation at Site. In all cases witnessed by the Owner and

Consultant, as well as the testing team.

 Loop testing of cables and hard-wired connections for control- and protection

circuits. Conducted by Contractors for cabling and connections and witnessed

and managed by the testing team.

 Loop- and function testing of communication buses (Modbus, Profibus, IEC61850

etc.). Conducted by Contractors for cabling and connections and witnessed and

managed by the testing teamVisualization displays for SCADA (Supervisory

Control and Data Acquisition) systems, i.e. HMI displays are pre-tested.

Readability, animation, signal codes, written explanations and instructions, and

so on are all checked. Real functionality tests are preceded by these tests.

 Hard-wired signals are pre-tested at the control system terminals. Inside the

control system, inputs are simulated and tested. The outputs of the control

system are tested at the terminals.

This stage is not extended to all signals in some projects, but it is used as a sample

test for equipment groups and/or HMI display samples.

 Hardwired signals are pre-tested all the way from the control system to the field

equipment. At the field level, inputs are generated and tested by the control

system. The outputs of the control system are tested on the field side.

 Individual pieces of equipment are functionally tested in the field, as is their

interaction with the control system. Sensors, control valves, and engines, to

name a few.

 Device functional monitoring and contact with the control system This stage

involves an "interlock inspection," in which all security and safety circuits are

tested and validated to ensure the plant's safe start-up.

 Individual machines, processes, and plants are started up by the control system.

To ensure proper functionality, threshold values, regulators, and other

parameters within the control system and individual equipment are fine-tuned.
 The analysis of alarms, to ensure that alarms are issued and displayed as

needed, is a significant task at this point (nothing missing, nothing excessive).

 Testing of plant performance under various operation conditions, including the

most important “unusual” conditions and emergency conditions. This stage is

concluded with the “performance test”, where the output and efficiency of the

plant is checked with precision instruments to confirm contractual obligations.

Upon the initial startup, the following important parameters that needs to be checked

to ensure the standards are met base on the geothermal power plant design:

Steam Supply - prior to the start of commissioning of the steam supply, all connected

geothermal wells have been tested and measured to verify that they are able to provide

the necessary pressure and flow needed for the plant. Moreover,  Chemical analysis is

often needed to assess the well's characteristics, as well as any risks associated with

deposits, gases, or corrosive content. Finally, the wells should be exhausted to

silencers for some time before commissioning to reduce the number of solid particles in

the steam supply. Steam wells, steam gathering pipelines, steam separators, steam

pipelines, steam control valves, mist eliminators, reinjection pipeline, and reinjection

wells are commonly used in power plants that use steam from flashed geothermal fluid.

The two-phase fluid from the wells is piped to one or more steam separators, which

isolate the steam from the water. The steam is then piped to the turbine via mist

eliminators. Steam control valves bind to steam pipes and direct steam to team

silencers. The steam separators' water is disposed of in either reinjection wells or open

pounds. The regulation of steam pressure and the control of the liquid level in the steam

separators are the two main control mechanisms, and hence the two main possible
causes of instability. Changes in steam pressure influence the liquid level in the

separators since the systems are connected. The steam supply system must be able to

support the operation of the turbines at variable loads and manage sudden changes in

the power output of the turbine/generator systems without causing any delays in the

operation of the units due to the steam supply system's instability or transient action.

Therefore, to avoid potential steam supply failures, thorough testing of the steam supply

for all possible events and tuning of the control functions to handle these events is

critical.

A. Cooling water emergency supply test - Cooling water is needed for the operation

of thermal power plants in general, and geothermal power plants. This is valid not

only for exhaust steam cooling in condensers, but also for machinery cooling

(e.g. generators, oil units etc.). Thus, it is critical to thoroughly test these systems

under a variety of conditions, such as maximum and minimum cooling water

demand, redundancy testing to ensure the system's functionality in the event of a

power outage, equipment failure, and so on.

B. Dynamic testing of governor and Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) - the term

“governor” is used for the regulating system for the rotational speed of the turbine

units, measured in revolutions per minute [rpm] and active power output of the

plant, designated with the letter P and measured in megawatts [MW].

Respectively, the abbreviation term “AVR” (Automatic Voltage Regulator) is used

for the regulating system for the output voltage of the generator units, measured

in kilovolts [kV] and reactive power output of the plant, designated with the letter

Q and measured in Megavolt amperes-reactive [MVAr]. Also, the power system

stabilizer (PSS) is a function of the AVR that is designed to aid transmission

system stability during and after transient events. Since geothermal power plants

are usually located in remote areas, the dynamic output of governors and AVR

systems will be put to the test when a geothermal power plant is connected to a

low-voltage transmission grid. The mechanics of interconnected power networks

dictate that generation must always equal the number of loads and losses at any

given time. Base load operation, with close to constant power output and thus

constant steam consumption, is the preferred “normal” operation mode for

geothermal power plants. This enables the power output setpoint to be gradually

adapted to steam conditions, allowing the steam supply pressure controlling

valves to be held in balance with a very low opening position. This would

optimize the use of available geothermal steam while reducing geothermal gas

emissions into the atmosphere. The downside is that the plant is unable to

produce a sudden load rise in the event of a frequency decrease under these

operating conditions. As a result, an equilibrium between these factors must be

found. It may be possible to use geothermal units as a base load if they are

connected to a reasonably strong grid with several participating units. Therefore,

for geothermal plants, the response to frequency deviations on the grid must be

extensively checked, as this will impact, for example, the dynamic response of

the steam supply system and, ultimately, other systems (reinjection system,

cooling water system etc.). This needs to be well-coordinated with the grid

company in charge of the high-voltage transmission system. Lastly, frequency

steps on the grid side must be produced by tripping other generators and loads
 for full scale testing. The AVR system's responses to system voltage variations,

as well as PSS for transmission system stability, will be included in these studies.

C. Other tests include testing of safety interlocks, testing of system redundancy in

the control system, testing of generator and transformer relay security, testing of

mechanical system redundancy, and so on.

3.4.2 Operational Checkout

The O&M for the steam field (wells, pipelines, infrastructure, etc.) and the

O&M for the power plant can be divided into two categories (turbine, generator,

cooling system, substation, etc.). To ensure a high availability factor and capacity

factor for the power plant, as well as consistent steam output from the

geothermal wells, proper maintenance of all facilities is essential. A power plant's

operations necessitate well-trained technical personnel; for a fully automated 50

MW geothermal power plant, about 20 technicians are needed. The steam field's

operations and maintenance entails cleaning existing wells, drilling new ones as

required to replace lost space, and maintaining other field equipment.

3.4.3 Hydrostatic Testing 

For geothermal power plants, hydrostatic testing is used to test the integrity of

the pipelines and the wellhead. Also, it is used to test the strength of the pipes and to

test for leaks. Hydrostatic testing is conducted before the operation of the geothermal

power plant and it is also part of the maintenance of the geothermal power plant,

however, it can only conduct if the geothermal power plant is not operating.

Furthermore, take note that hydrostatic testing cannot monitor equipment for leaks, but
on-stream equipment integrity is best managed by an effective fixed equipment

mechanical integrity program.

Hydrostatic testing is a form of pressure test that involves fully filling the component with

water, removing all air from the structure, and pressurizing the system to 1.5 times the

unit's design pressure maximum. After that, the pressure is maintained for a set period

to visually check the device for leaks. Applying tracer or fluorescent dyes to the liquid to

identify where cracks and leaks are coming from will improve visual inspection.

The following are the common method of hydrostatic testing:

A.    Water Jacket Method - the vessel is filled with water before being loaded into a

sealed chamber (known as the test jacket) that is also filled with water. The

vessel is then pressurized for a set period within the test jacket. As a result of the

vessel expanding inside the test jacket, water is pushed out into a glass tube that

tests the total expansion. Afterwards, as the vessel is depressurized, it shrinks

down to its original position. In some instances, the vessel does not return to its

original size called permanent expansion. The difference between total and

permanent expansion decides whether the vessel is fit for service or not. The

greater the percent extension, the more likely the ship is to be decommissioned.

B.    Direct Expansion Method - the direct expansion method entails filling a tank or

container with a predetermined volume of water, pressurizing the device, and

measuring the amount of water ejected after the pressure is removed. The

amount of water forced into the vessel, the test pressure, and the amount of

water expelled from the vessel are used to calculate the permanent and

cumulative expansion values.

 C.    Proof Pressure Method - the proof pressure test uses an internal pressure to

assess whether the vessel has any leaks or other weaknesses that might lead to

failure, such as wall thinning.

CHAPTER 4: OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

4.1 OPERATION  

There are different systems operations in the plant intervening different

processes of plant’s energy generation cycle and these are: Steam system, Water

Condensation system, Gas Extraction system, Turbogenerator an Auxiliary equipment,

Electric system, protection system, Fire Safety System, Miscellaneous systems, and

environmental control.

4.1.1 Steam System

This system processes the delivery of steam to the wells to the entrance point,

turbine, and turbo compressors. Its operation should be coordinated at the well area.

The steam blowing needs to be utilized to clean out the pipes and avoid strange matter

entering the turbine before utilizing this system. When the system has been applied to

service, it is noted that no limitations or licenses on producing work on the system. It is

a need to verify all installed equipment as no registers have left open. Condenser

purges should be open. All instruments are in operating condition. Once the verifications

have been done, pipes are heated up and pressurized up to turbine stop valves. It is

necessary that purges, and steam traps are draining the condensate as there are no

anomalies in the system. When all the operating conditions are achieved, turbine start-

up maneuvers can start. For enclosing this system on out of service, stop valves are

closed as it discharges steam through a pressure regulation system ensuring the

pressure does not go over to its limits. It is important to drain the condensate to avoid

corrosion especially in the equipment and pipelines.

4.1.2 Water Condensation System

Condensation should be utilized into service before starting up the turbine.the

verification on its operation is that it is ready with the manholes closed and all electrical

panels are energized. After following the standard procedures for verifications, the

corresponding maneuvers are based out from the start-up procedures for this system. It

is also a reminder to observe abnormalities on the system. During typical activity it

ought to be made certain that operation boundaries stay inside established limits.

Aspects requiring more consideration are: Supervisions on pump operation, load

current, cooling, vibrations, suction valves, pump discharge, cooling tower, and

distribution of water for the ventilators.

4.1.3 Turbogenerator and Auxiliary Equipment

The verification of starting up a turbogenerator is that it needs to be verified: that

no work license exists on the equipment installed correctly, turbogenerator’s lubrication

system, turbine’s control system, generator’s seal oil system, generator’s self-excitation

system, substation equipment, operation of protection equipment. It is required for the

start-up sequence of turbo generators to have lubricating system operating,

turbogenerator rotating longly, generator’s oil system operating same as for steam

system, circulation water system, and gas extraction system. Starting up a turbine

should follow the operational sequence on the start-up procedures. It is needed to

constantly observe the following parameters: pressure and temperature of lubrication

oil, temperature of metal and the discharge of the bearings, speed, differential
expansion of the casing, eccentricity and vibration of the arrow, and the vacuum and

temperature of the discharge turbine. For normal operation, it is needed to have the unit

work at the most efficiency possible operating at their maximum capacity. When taking

out of service, first it needs to reduce the load to a minimum value, change the auxiliary

equipment.

4.1.4 Electric System for the Plant

This system is formed by generator, substation, auxiliary services equipment.

The substation holds the voltage transformation equipment, equipment for the plant's

association with and detachment from the electric network, buses, current and power

transformers, rods and different elements related with the installed equipment. To

associate the unit to the bus or the bus to the transmission line, synchronization

systems are required prior to shutting off any switch at the substation. The operational

care in this space is the same as that taken at a regular plant however rely upon the

gear installed.

The auxiliary services equipment incorporates all the unit\'s electric equipment:

Transformers, High and low voltage panels, Motor Control Panels, Electric Motors,

Control panels, Direct current system, Measurement and electric protection equipment,

Lighting, and Emergency generator

4.1.5 Communication

For the communication systems, equipment to be used while operating the

geothermal power plant are loudspeakers and amplifiers as internal communication,

private and public telephone, carrier, or radio as intercommunication.

4.1.6 Supervision and Control

 Control coordinates the operation of the plant’s equipment. control in a

geothermal power plant is simpler than the conventional thermal power plant because it

doesn’t have an advanced control system for steam generator and auxiliary services. It

can be operated manually. For manual operation, command actions operated manually.

Its activating mechanisms can be electric, pneumatic or hydraulic.

For automatization levels used in plants are:

 Generation unit with centralized control and automatic controls operating

independently.

 Plant with automatic detection using a computer to register operation’s values,

detects deviations and carries out routine calculations for immediate inspection of

operations personnel.

 Automatic plant, where computer and associated controls automatically carry out

verification, start-up, monitoring, equipment adjustment and shutdown

operations.

4.1.7 Fire Safety System

The reason for the fire safety system is to protect human lives and property from

fire. A fire at a plant can harm imperative bits of equipment and truly affect the plant's

generation system and economy.

Areas of highest fire hazard are: Cooling towers, Hydrogen system, Battery

room, Turbogenerator lubrication system, Electric panels and inner substations,

Command room, Cable Network, Transformers

 The Main Causes of fire are: Self-ignition of sulphur deposits, Electric short-

circuits, Carrying out welding task without the proper protection, Lighting fires or

smoking, External causes

Means of extinguishing fire:

-Pressure water steam

-Pulverized water

-Water, chemical powder and carbon dioxide extinguishers

Operations personnel should be all around prepared in the utilization of

fire-fighting equipment, so he is ready to react in an emergency. A program of

routine reviews and tests ought to be set up to ensure the system is in operating

conditions consistently.

4.1.9 Miscellaneous Systems: Air compressors, Service Water

Compressed air is utilized for pneumatic instruments and for

general services, Typically, reciprocating compressors are utilized with 100%

twofold limit equipment, to include with one equipment in activity and another as

a back-up. Fore instruments, air free from humidity and H2S is needed to put

through absorbent H2S filters and air dryers. At the point when pneumatic

switches are utilized at the substation, another compression system is needed to

supply air for their activity. Operational care for this gear is ordinary. Air pressure,

and temperature, condensate traps, lubrication. Filler and cooling systems, and

so on should be checked.

The water for bathrooms, dining halls and administrations overall ought to

be of acceptable quality and liberated from microorganisms. Contingent upon the

 quality of the water accessible, some sort of treatment might be essential for its

utilization.

4.1.10 Environmental Control

The main source of contamination at a geothermal power plant are:

-Waste water

-Solids

-Gases

-Noise

4.1.11 Wastewater

Wastewater is produced from the surplus of the circulation water system and

from the plant's drains. Circulation systems with a cooling tower are considered to have

the highest pollution problems, because of the concentration of solids yielding a result of

evaporation. The primary pollutants in the surplus water from the towers are: mineral

acids, sulfates, sulfur, sulfides, and iron oxide. These contaminants can be found as

dissolved solids and in suspension and are produced both from the contaminants in the

steam, same as on the chemical treatment, from the environment through chemical

reactions that occur in the circulating water system. The most widely recognized

contaminants in the plant's drainage system are: organic matter from sanitary drains

and industrial waste gathered by this system, such as oil, detergents, chemical

products, and so forth. Clarification or sedimentation treatment is the method used to

control waste water pollution as it eliminates other contaminants until it can be released

into the zone's drainage network. Water will be constantly monitored to ensure the

quality of the water.

 Salts from well discharges and salíne dust from the environment that are

conveyed by the air can result in failures in the substation\ 's and transmission line\'s

electric insulation, same as corrosion issues in the facilities. Because of this

contamination there could be interruptions because of insulation failures and the

maintenance needs will increment. To prevent this contamination, a solution should be

discovered that tends to the variables that cause it.

4.2 MAINTENANCE 

Maintaining a geothermal power plant involves maintaining the machines,

equipment, structures, and other general facilities and services in good working order,

within the limits defined with the company providing the geothermal fluid and the point of

distribution of electric power to the transmission network, in order to ensure the plant's

safe and effective operation. 

Both work related to maintaining facilities and machinery at a sufficient standard

so that they can perform their purpose in a cost-effective manner is included in

geothermal power plant maintenance.

4.3 MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE 

4.3.1 Routine Maintenance 

Both preventive maintenance tasks that are repeated at regular intervals and

follow a work schedule are referred to as routine maintenance. Its aim is to keep

equipment from failing throughout its useful life.

A. Main Steam System

the content of contaminant solids, humidity or water and noncondensable gases

transported in the geothermal steam, can cause scaling, corrosion and erosion
problems in this system to a larger or lesser degree. This will require a specific

maintenance program for each plant. Maintenance action, in addition to self

conservation, should be aimed also at avoiding the following: 

 Entrance of water and solid matter to the turbine

 Equipment clogging up

 Steam leaks

 Accumulation of water in the pipelines

Maintenance activities for this system are: 

 Revision and testing of safety valves

 Revision of the pressure regulation system

 Revision of the humidity separator

 Revision of steam filter and traps

 Revision of seals and lubrication of stop valves

 Revision of pipelines, supports and insulation. 

B. Turbo generator and Auxiliaries 

are modules formed by the turbogenerator, lubrication oil and control system, the

generator’s seal oil system, the generator’s H2 and CO2 system, and the turbine’s

steam seal system. with some variations, the equipment of this module corresponds to

that of a conventional plant and its maintenance should be carried out following the

manufacturer’s recommendations. 

The following are specific problems of this system: 

 Tendency of the control valves to stick and for there to be an emergency

shutdown of the turbine, caused by the scaling and corrosive action of the
 contaminated steam. These elements need to be frequently checked and

necessary corrections made. 

 Scaling occurs especially in the first row and nozzles, which reduces the pathway

area of the steam and, consequently, the capacity of the turbine. This makes it

sometimes necessary to stop the system prematurely to carry out non-

programmed maintenance to recover the lost capacity. On occasions it is

possible to use some washing technique with the turbine rolling, to remove this

scaling and avoid a costly shutdown. 

 When water from the cooling tower’s circulation system is used to cool the

lubrication and control oil of the turbogenerator and the hydrogen of the

generator, scaling and corrosion problems could take that require further

attention.

 Due to corrosive characteristics of steam in the presence of oxygen, it is

important that the turbine’s seal system be in good operating condition to avoid

attacks on these parts. 

C. Condensers

Mixture condensers used in geothermal power plants, either of a barometric or

low-level type, normally require little special attention when materials of their internal

elements have been selected well and they receive adequate major maintenance.

D. Circulation Water System

When water comes from an external source there are normally few maintenance

problems. In a system using the same condensed steam as a source of water supply for
the circulation system, more or less serious problems could take place with the deposits

of solids and the corrosion of some of the elements in the system.

Typical maintenance of this system is as follows:

 Circulation water pumps: lubrication, revision of seals and of the pump’s cooling

lines, cleaning of the motor’s coolers, prevention of dynamic problems. 

 suction and release valves: revision of operator, revision and adjustment

gaskets.

 water pipelines and dust: revision of pipes, accessories and supports.

E. Cooling Tower

In this facility there are problems of solid deposition, corrosion and degradation of wood.

Maintenance actions for this area are:

 revision and lubrication of ventilators

 revision of gasket and lubrication of water distribution valves

 cleaning of water distribution pools

 revision of the tower’s blind, filling and covers 

F. Cooling Water System 

If water from the circulation system is going to be used for direct cooling, problems

could take place in the oil and hydrogen coolers, as was mentioned above. 

If the cooling water is in a closed system and water is used from the circulation system

with a tower, scaling and corrosion problems could take place in the heat exchanger. 

G. Fire Prevention System

 If good quality crude water is used, the problems in this system will be as normal

as those in any other similar system, with additional problems being the action of the

corrosive environment, such as the area of the cooling tower. If water from the

circulation system is used, there could be problems with the equipment that would be

similar to those seen in the system.

as normal task we have:

 revision and lubrication of motor pumps

 lubrication and tuning of internal combustion motor

 revision of network pipes, valves, hydrant, hoses, aspersion system, etc.

 revision and reloading of fire extinguishers.

H. Service Water System

Maintenance of this system is circumscribed to regular inspections of pumps and of the

network of pipes and fittings. 

4.3.2 Major Maintenance

Major maintenance of a generator unit has the purpose of restoring the original

functioning conditions of all equipment and facilities that integrate it, so the unit will fully

recover its capacity, efficiency, safety level and degree of reliability. 

To undertake major maintenance the unit is put out of service, the internal parts

of all equipment are inspected in detail to determine their state, and, if so deemed, the

necessary repairs or replacement are carried out. major maintenance done yearly or

every two years depends on the equipment used. 

A. Main Stem System 

 Major maintenance of a generator unit has the purpose of restoring the original

functioning conditions of all equipment and facilities that integrate it, so the unit will fully

recover its capacity, efficiency, safety level and degree of reliability. 

To undertake major maintenance the unit is put out of service, the internal parts

of all equipment are inspected in detail to determine their state, and, if so deemed, the

necessary repairs or replacements are carried out. Complementary to this, all

verifications required by each piece of equipment are undertaken, such as adjustments,

allowances, calibrations, tests, etc. 

The period between these maintenance depends on the particular conditions of

each plant, but can fluctuate between one and two years. There are certain tasks that

should be done at greater time intervals. 

Major maintenance should be programmed to be carried out during the season of

less demand on the electric system that is interconnected to the plant.  

The most common tasks undertaken in a major maintenance program are the following:

a. Main Steam System 

In this system corrosion and scaling problems may appear which affect the equipment's

life span as well as its performance. Maintenance consists of removing the scales that

have formed and correcting the ware by repairing or replacing the affected parts. 

Special care is required with safety valves, pressure regulating valves, humidity traps,

steam filters and purgers. 

b. Turbogenerator and Auxiliary Systems 

The main problems that may appear in the turbine by effect of geothermal steam are: 
  Scaling in the blades and nozzles as well as in the emergency stop valves and

control valves resulting from solids carried by the steam. This scaling reduces the

turbine's capacity and efficiency. 

 Erosion especially in the last blade stages. originated by the water contained in

the steam. 

 Corrosion of parts where steam contacts air, such as turbine seals and valve

trees. 

In general terms the maintenance of the turbine consists of:

 Complete disassembly and assembly. 

 Cleaning of the rotor and of the nozzle diaphragms. 

 Nondestructive tests to determine emerging failures of the rotor and nozzles.

 Inspection of bearings, main oil pump, governor. etc. Verification of rotor

alignment. 

 Verification of allowances between moving and fixed parts.

  Inspection of control and stop valves and of steam filters.

 Verification of instruments and of the turbine control and protection systems. 

 Inspection of the lubricating system. 

 Inspection and cleaning of the oil coolers. 

 Inspection of the turbine's seal system. 

The following procedures apply for the generator. 

 Inspection of the rotor, stator and excitation systems. 

 Inspection of bearings and seals. 

  Electric tests. Verification of instruments and of turbo-generator control and

protection systems. 

 Inspection of generator oil seal system.

  Inspection of generator H2 and CO2 system. 

 inspection and cleaning of hydrogen coolers. 

c. Condenser 

In the equipment problems of corrosion and deposit of solids may be present. For

maintenance, the panel doors should be opened, and all internal elements should be

inspected, such as pans, sprinklers, pipes, coatings. etc., and the necessary corrections

should be made.

d. Circulating Water System 

General maintenance aspects of this system are: 

 Disassembly of the pumps to check ware of bearings, shafts. etc. 

 Inspection of bearings and motor lubricating and cooling systems. 

 Inspection of motor-pump alignment. 

 Electric tests of motors. 

 Inspection of valves and operators. 

 Inspection and cleaning of pipes. 

 Verification of controls. protections and instruments. 

f. Cooling Tower

Maintenance requirements depend on the kind and features of the tower installed. A

mechanical draft tower demands much attention for its maintenance. At greater
operation time the maintenance requirements are also greater, up to the point that

important replacements should be made to keep up capacity, efficiency and safety. 

Special care should be taken regarding chemical treatment of the circulating water since

the tower's life span depends on it. 

The tasks that should be undertaken on a tower are: 

 Removal of muds accumulated in the basin.

 Inspection of water distribution valves. 

 Inspection of ventilators and their motors. 

 Inspection of the structure, fillings, humidity eliminators, shutters, water

distribution basins, coven, etc. 

 Electric tests of motors and verification of their controls and protections. 

Since sulphur deposits accumulated at the tower have a very low ignition point, it is

necessary to keep it permanently wet when it is out of service to prevent fire. 

g. Cooling Water System 

All equipment of this system should be checked: pumps, heat exchangers, filters,

valves. etc. 

h. Fire Prevention System 

As a safety measure, in-depth maintenance of this equipment is not advisable

when any of its units is out of service. Its maintenance should be programmed when all

the units of the plant are in service, always being cautious that at least one pumping

equipment is available. 

i. Electric System of the Unit 

The equipment of this system should receive the following maintenance: 

  Main transformer: electric tests performed at the windings and complete tests at

the insulating oil; if necessary, it should be treated to regenerate it. 

 Machine circuit breakers: maintenance according to the type of breaker, electric

tests, mechanic inspection and verification of its control and protections. 

 Switchblades: electric and mechanic tests according to their type. 

 Current and voltage transformers: electric tests and verification of measurement. 

 Distribution switchboards and control centers of low voltage motors: electric and

mechanic tests, verification of controls, protections and measurement. 

 Central control switchboard: instrument calibration. verification of remote controls

and of protections. 

 Insulation inspection and cleaning. 

4.3.3 Corrective Maintenance 

Corrective maintenance is understood as that one that should be provided to a

piece of equip-ment to restore its functioning conditions when it is failing. 

In a geothermal power plant, as with any public service generating plant,

interruptions of ser-vice besides resulting in high costs for the company, have highly

negative social and economic impacts on the area served. 

Even though it is desirable not to have to carry out any corrective maintenance at all,

practi-cally no plant is free of this need in greater or lesser extent. One of the

responsibilities of the maintenance team is to proceed quickly and cost-effectively with

the repairs required by any faulty equipment. 

 When a failure occurs troubleshooting should be performed to firstly determine its

causes, and secondly to take the necessary corrective measures to prevent it from

occurring again. 

The evaluation of corrective maintenance should serve as a reference to

measure the degree of effectiveness of the preventative maintenance program and, at

the same time, serve as an assessment tool when adjusting the program or deciding on

changes in the installation. 

4.4 Optimum maintenance strategy

To decide which of the methods discussed above should be employed by a

power plant maintenance team (Figure 29) could be based on criticality/impact and

vulnerability/risk analysis. Corrective maintenance should be the strategy of choice only

if the risk of failure is very low and if the consequences of failure are fairly mild or where

preventive maintenance measures are not available. 

Figure 29.  Selection of optimum maintenance methods (World Economic Forum, 2014)
 Scheduled (time-based) maintenance is the strategy of choice when failures are

costly or safety is critical and when the failure rate is fairly low but tends to increase

over time. 

Condition-based or predictive maintenance is a strategy that triggers

maintenance activity when the asset’s condition falls below a certain threshold. The aim

is to time the maintenance work optimally so that it is not performed more often – and

hence more expensively – than necessary and in a way that it can be undertaken at a

convenient time when the service will be disrupted the least. 

Reliability-centred maintenance considers not only the asset’s current condition

but also the likely consequences of failure. The main aim of this strategy is to reduce

the overall risk and impact of unexpected failures i.e. to ensure high reliability. To put in

a nutshell, maintenance methods need to be customized for each asset and the correct

combination of strategies should be applied for each component of the power plant

(World Economic Forum, 2014). 

CHAPTER 5: ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS, LAWS AND STUDIES

5.1 LEGAL ENVIRONMENTAL FRAMEWORK 

  5.1.1 Environmental Impact Assessment 

The aim of an environmental impact assessment is to decide how a proposed

construction project would affect the climate, society, and health. Also, it aims to

mitigate the bad effects of the geothermal power plant development in the environment.

there are three main stages in developing geothermal power plant, and each

stage has different impacts to the environment that should be assessed to mitigate the

effects.

1. Preliminary exploration, the search for the right place to build the geothermal

power plant hardly affects the environment, however, if the place is decided, it

might be a forested area or an agricultural land.

2. Drilling. To harness the hot fluid coming from underground, the size of a drill site

is normally between 200 m and 2,500 m . This massive hole could cause soil
2 2

degradation and deposition of drill mud or soil. Moreover, it affects the

topography of the area. Furthermore,  air pollution can result from gas emissions,

smoke exhaust from generators, compressors and vehicles. During well testing,

steam and spray will scald trees and grass, causing damage to the surrounding

vegetation. Dust carried by the wind over exposed surfaces can have a negative

impact in the region (Webster, 1995).

 3. Production and utilization. Land subsidence could occur due to the construction

of pipelines throughout the vicinity of the power plant. The main potential

consequences during activity are subsidence and induced seismicity.

The following are the unwanted environmental effects of geothermal power plant that

should be mitigated.

1. Effects on air. Throughout the life of the power plant, from the construction phase

to the last day it would be used, it will emit dust that could give disturbances in

the vicinity of the plant. Furthermore, during well drilling and testing, as well as

power plant operations, non-condensable gases such as hydrogen sulfide (H S) 2

and carbon dioxide (CO ) will be emitted from the geothermal fluid. During all
2

phases of the project, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and sulfur oxides

produced by internal combustion engines will be released.  The emission of

oxides of nitrogen released from the drilling rig engine during drilling operation

will be mitigated if one drill rig is used at a given time. Also, hydrogen sulfide will

be released during well testing, it is important to monitor the concentration of H S 2

in the atmosphere to keep it below international standards. In addition,

throughout the operation of the geothermal power plant, H S will be emitted,

2

hence, H S concentration should be measured using steam samples to maintain

2

the international standard level. Also, air filters should be installed to filter the

exhaust gases to minimize its bad effects to the environment.

2.  Effects on water. Since the wells are drilled depending on the site,  depending on

the number of wells to be drilled, high-temperature geothermal fluid may be deep

and can take up to 50 l/s of water for several months.  The water removed from
 the underground should be replenished by re-injecting the water back to the

underground to avoid land subsidence. Also, this might affect the quality of

groundwater in the area, therefore, the volume of fluid is immense, and it must be

discharged with extreme caution into well-designed sumps. Not all water from

reservoir is re-injected since due to the loss of volume its volume by converting it

to steam resulting production of waste water on geothermal power plant. Outside

water must be used to maintain constant volume of water in the reservoir. Lastly,

it is important to track the impact of geothermal fluid on surface water and

shallow groundwater, if necessary, the construction of the power plant might be

changed. Flowing streams or rivers have advantages compared to lakes or

reservoirs in disposing cooling waters as it transports water heat away from

outfalls, minimizing temperature buildup on discharge point. It is also required on

cooling towers to reduce discharge of water heat into streams and lakes. It also

affects marine organisms from the cooling water systems of thermal-electric

plants at the intakes from the condensers and discharge systems as well as the

increased temperatures of receiving waters.

3. Noise effects. During the construction phase, noise effects are caused by the

drilling and well testing that could affect the wildlife and the vibration of the drilling

could cause low seismic waves that could trigger small earthquakes. The cooling

tower, transformer, and turbine-generator building produce the most noise during

power plant operation. During the geothermal power plant operation, to hold

ambient noise levels below the 65-decibel limit set by the US Geological Survey,
 noise mufflers must be used (Kestin et al., 1980). Noise effects to staff, people in

the vicinity, and animals would be mitigated by the decreased noise level.

4. Flora and Fauna. During the drilling, the construction of pipeline and transmission

lines, and road, vegetation and biodiversity could be affected enormously. During

activity, a monitoring program should be carried out, including the monitoring of

pollutant gases such as H S in the atmosphere, and if the concentrations of these

2

gases exceed the limits set by standards, steps to minimize their levels in the

atmosphere should be taken. Also, to avoid damages to vegetation, proper

disposal of wastewaters should be conducted, and if necessary, the power plant

should have wastewater treatment facility. Furthermore, the increase in thermal

temperature in the vicinity due to exploration and emissions, a study should be

conducted to ensure that the biodiversity should not be affected or at least

mitigated.

5.1.2 Environmental Compliance Certificate 

An Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC) from the Department of

Environment and Natural Resources – Environmental Management Board is required

for any project in the Philippines that poses a possible environmental risk or effect

(DENR-EMB). After a positive analysis of the project's submission, DENR-EMB issues

an ECC. This certificate certifies that the planned project or undertaking would have no

major negative environmental effects in the Philippines. The ECC provides clear

measures and requirements that the project proponent must meet before and during the

project's activity. Conditions are also listed to be carried out during the project's

abandonment process to mitigate known possible environmental impacts. 

 5.1.3 The role of laws, regulations, standards, codes, guidelines and best
practices 

Republic Act No. 9513: AN ACT PROMOTING THE DEVELOPMENT,

UTILIZATION AND COMMERCIALIZATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES. This Act shall be known as the “Renewable Energy Act

of 2008“. It shall thereafter be referred to as the “Act”.

Pursuant to Rule 2, Section 8 of Department Circular No. 2012-11-0009,

otherwise known as the “Renewable Energy Safety, Health and Environment Rules and

Regulations”, and in order to ensure adequate safety and protection of health, life,

property, and the environment against the hazards of geothermal operations, the

following Geothermal Safety, Health and Environment Code of Practice, (this

“Geothermal Code”) is hereby promulgated.

Prescribing the policy for maintaining the share of renewable energy (re)

resources in the country's installed capacity through the holistic implementation of the

pertinent provisions of republic act no. 9513 or the re act on feed-in tariff (fit) system,

priority and must dispatch, among others

Department Circular No. DC2015-03-0001

Promulgating the framework for the implementation of must dispatch and priority

dispatch of renewable energy resources in the wholesale electricity spot market

Department Circular No. DC2013-05-0009

Guidelines for the Selection Process of Renewable Energy Projects under Feed-

in Tariff System and the Award of Certificate for Feed-in Tariff Eligibility

Department Circular No. 2012-11-0009

 Renewable Energy Safety, Health and Environment rules and regulations

statement of authority.

Department Circular No. 2009-07-0010

Guidelines for the Accreditation of Manufacturers, Fabricators and Suppliers of Locally-

Produced Renewable Energy Equipment and Components

Related Philippine Environmental Regulations for the Implementation and Monitoring of

the ECC

Philippine Particulars
Environmental
Regulations

Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC)

Presidential The Environmental Impact Statement System

Decree No. 1586
(PD No. 1586)

DAO 2003-30 Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRRS) for

the Philippine Environmental Impact Statement
(EIS) System.

DAO 1992-26 To effectively enforce the "Pollution Control

Decree of 1976", otherwise known as PD 984,
and its implementing rules and regulations by
establishing linkages among the (1) Department
of Environment and Natural Resources, (2)
industrial establishments which are potential and
actual sources of pollution and (3) local
government agencies, and in order to carry out
the national policy of maintaining a reasonable
quality of the environment.

DAO 2014-02 Revised Guidelines for Pollution Control Officer

Accreditation – To effectively enforce RA 9275 by
establishing linkages among the (1) Department
of Environment and Natural Resources, (2)
industrial establishments which are potential and
actual sources of pollution and (3) local
government agencies, and to carry out the
 national policy of maintaining a reasonable quality
of the environment.

DAO 2003-27 Details the preparation and submission of Self-

Monitoring Report (SMR). Unless otherwise
provided, all covered firms shall submit the SMR
on a quarterly basis. SMR covering activities in a
quarter shall be submitted within fifteen calendar
days after the end of the said quarter as may be
determined by the DENR-EMB regional office
concerned.

DAO 2003-14 Creating the Philippine Environment Partnership

Program to Support Industry Self-Regulation
Towards Improved Environmental Performance.

Law associated with Air Emissions

Republic Act Also known as the Clean Air Act that consolidates
(RA) No. 8749 all the rules and regulations on air quality. It also
establishes the standards for ambient air quality
and emission standards for point sources. The Act
contains provisions on empowering ordinary
citizens to address situations involving violators
and government officials who neglect the
performance of their duties. This law mostly
provides a general framework for the new air
pollution requirements.

DENR Administrative Orders (DAO) for the implementation of the Law on Air
Emissions

DAO 2000-81 Under this order, a valid Permit to Operate must

be obtained from DENR for any source of air
pollution continuously emitted out to the
environment. Air emission and ambient standards
are also listed under this order.

DAO 2009-02 Designation of Makiling-Banahaw Geothermal

Airshed and its Governing Board) details the
coverage of the airshed and the designation of the
airshed governing board members.

DENR Memorandum Circular on Air Emissions

2007-003 Provides the implementing rules and regulations

for RA. 8749. Details the policy on compliance
 and permitting for industrial facilities relating to air
quality. The frequencies of emission testing for
new or existing sources are also specified in this
Order.

2002-13 Details the requirements and procedures on the

establishment of geothermal areas as airsheds.
Requirements include an air dispersion modeling
and at least two continuous H2S ambient
monitors

Laws associated with control of Hazardous Wastes and Substances

PD 984 Commonly known as the Pollution Control Law

that provides the standards for storage, collection,
processing, transport and disposal of solid and
hazardous wastes

RA 6969 Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Nuclear

Wastes Control Act of 1990. This act regulates,
prohibits and restricts the importation,
manufacture, processing, sale, distribution, use
and disposal of chemical substances and
mixtures that present unreasonable risk and/or
injury to health or the environment. This Act also
specifies proper handling of toxic substances
which includes pre-manufacture & pre-importation
requirements.

RA 9003 The Ecological Solid Waste Management Act

provides the framework for the handling of solid
wastes, standards for the establishment of
dumpsites, and guidelines for the segregation and
recycling of solid wastes.

DAO for the implementation of the Law on Hazardous Wastes and

Substances

DAO No. 29 of Provides the implementing rules and regulations

July 6, 1992 for RA. 6969. List of hazardous wastes is
(DAO 92-29) described under this order. There is a requirement
that hazardous waste generators must register its
wastes with the Environmental Management
Bureau (EMB) Regional Office, by providing
information regarding the type and quantity of
hazardous wastes generated. It also requires the
facility to obtain a license from DENR if it is
 involved in the treatment of hazardous waste.
Hazardous wastes are only allowed to be
collected and treated/disposed by DENR
accredited companies. Records on wastes
transported out from the facility must be submitted
to DENR and retained on site for two years.

DAO 94-28 Provides guidelines for the importation of

recyclable materials containing hazardous
materials

DAO 97-28 Includes used oil in the list of hazardous materials

DAO 2001-34 Provides the implementing rules and regulations

for RA. 9003

DAO 2004-27 Provides the updated limiting condition for the

import of used lead-acid batteries under the scrap
metal category;

DAO 2004-01 Provides the Chemical Control Order (CCO) for

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)

DAO 2000-02 Regulates the use and disposal of asbestos

DAO 1997-38 CCO for Mercury and Mercury Compounds

DAO 1997-39 CCO for Cyanide and Cyanide Compounds

DAO 2004-08 Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS)

DAO 2004-36 Revises Title III of DAO No. 92-29 regarding

management of hazardous wastes.

DAO 2007-23 Implementation of Priority Chemical List (PCL) to

regulate the use and importation of selected
chemicals such as cadmium acetate

DAO 1992-29 States that a PCL Certification by DENR-EMB

stating that the chemicals used are included in the
Philippine Inventory of Chemicals and Chemical
Substances (PICCS) and as such are not required
to have a Pre-Manufacturing Pre-Importation
Notification (PMPIN)

Laws associated with Water Resources

PD 1067 The Water Code of the Philippines, provides the

 framework relating to the appropriation, control,
and conservation of water resources, as well as
defines the rights and obligations of water users
and water owners. This decree further sets basic
laws governing the ownership, utilization, and
exploitation of water resources and identifies
administrative agencies that will enforce the
Code.

RA 9275 Otherwise known as the Clean Water Act of 2004

provides the rules and regulations for the proper
implementation of water utilization, protection and
conservation to protect water bodies from
pollution from land-based sources such as
industries and commercial establishments,
agriculture and community/household activities.

DAO for the implementation of the Law on Water Resources

DAO 1990-35 Provides the implementing rules and regulations

pertaining to wastewater effluent. The order sets
regulations for effluent permitting, monitoring,
limitations of effluent impacts on the natural
environment and other rules governing the
discharge of industrial wastewater. There is a
requirement on obtaining a Wastewater Discharge
Permit from DENR for wastewater discharge into
Philippine waters. Effluent discharge standards
are specified under the orders. However, there is
no standard on effluent injected into a deep
reservoir. Reinjection of condensate or cooling
water blowdown is covered by a Discharge Permit
by the entity operating the treatment or
reinjection.

DAO 2005-10 Provides the implementing rules and regulations

for RA 9275. Under this Order, discharging,
injecting or allowing seeping into the soil or sub-
soiling any substance in any form that would
pollute groundwater is prohibited. In the case of
geothermal projects, regulated discharge for
short-term activities (e.g. well testing, flushing,
commissioning or venting) and deep reinjection of
geothermal liquids may be allowed subject to the
approval of DENR.
 5.2 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACT OF GEOTHERMAL POWER
PLANTS 
5.2.1 Environmental Impact
Geothermal energy has a low environmental effect, particularly when compared

to diesel or gas power plants. Geothermal power plants, when properly sited and

installed, can be a reliable source of sustainable and environmentally friendly electricity.

Geothermal power plants affect the biodiversity around its vicinity. Also, it contributes to

the disruption of waterways, wildlife, vegetation, geological hazard, water quality, and

land use.

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2014), the IPCC

measures gCO2eq emissions per kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electricity produced by power

plants, the geothermal power plants have lifecycle emissions of 38 gCOeq/kWh. That is

95 percent less than coal (820 gCOeq/kWh) and 92 percent less than gas (490

gCOeq/kWh). 

5.2.1.1 Environmental Pollution 

Geothermal power plants contribute to air pollution, land pollution, and water

pollution. The production of foul odors and carbon emission contributes to air pollution.

Moreover, in an open-loop system, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, ammonia,

methane, and boron are emitted into the atmosphere. The hydrogen sulfide emission

results in a foul odor known as “rotten egg” smell. Furthermore, hydrogen sulfide

becomes acid particulate once emitted into the atmosphere becoming a sulfur dioxide

that could lead into acid rain contamination that damages crops, soils and bodies of

water. Consequently, it could cause heart and lung disease. In some instances,

geothermal power plants emit mercury. With the use of technologies like scrubbers, the

air pollution emitted by the power plant reduces, however, the chemicals are converted
into a watery sludge composing sulfur, vanadium, silica compounds, chlorides, arsenic,

mercury, nickel, and other heavy metals. These by-products should be disposed

accordingly as they are hazardous wastes (Environmental Impacts of Geothermal

Energy, 2013).

Geothermal power plant consume numerous amounts of water for electric

generation. Thus, geothermal power plant contribute to water pollution not only with the

wastewater disposal that affects water quality but also with the water consumption.

Sulfur, salt, and other minerals are commonly found in hot water drained from

underground reservoirs. To mitigate water consumption, for a close-loop power plant,

after being used for heat or energy output, water is drained back into the geothermal

reservoir. For an open-loop system, the waste water is either disposed of in land or

back into the bodies of water, however, the wastewater includes some of the chemicals

and it also have higher temperature that could disrupt the biodiversity and water quality

upon disposal (Environmental Impacts of Geothermal Energy, 2013).

Geothermal power plant cause land pollution as it requires wide land areas to be

constructed. Also, soil degradation could happen, and it can disrupt vegetation because

of its waste products. Furthermore, if the power plant uses landfills for its waste

products, it will pollute the land since it contains hazardous chemicals.

5.2.1.2 Terrain Changes 

Geothermal power plants cause land instability, a phenomenon called land

subsidence wherein the land sinks because of the extraction of geothermal fluids. Even

so geothermal power plants re-injects wastewater back into underground, this

phenomenon could still happen. Since a geothermal power plant needs a hot ground

fluid reservoir, it is located near the “hot spots” which in most cases are near fault
zones. Fault zones are prone to instability and can trigger earthquakes. Some studies

concluded that geothermal power plants contribute to greater earthquake frequencies.

In addition, tiny earthquakes can be triggered by digging deep into the earth and

extracting water and steam. Furthermore, like natural gas hydraulic drilling, water is

pumped at high pressures underground that could crack hot rock reservoirs increasing

the chance of earthquake and terrain changes (Environmental Impacts of Geothermal

Energy, 2013).

5.2.2 Social Impact 

High Noise Level

Geothermal power plants can work in consistency with the pertinent guidelines

and are not viewed as a noise nuisance in encompassing residential communities. All

power facilities should meet nearby noise ordinances on the phase of construction and

operation. Noise pollution on geothermal plants is regularly considered during three

phases: the well-drilling and testing phase, the construction phase, and the plant

operation phase. At the construction phase, noise might be produced from the

construction of well pads, transmission towers, and power plant. During the operation

phase, most of the noise is produced from the cooling tower, the transformer, and the

turbine-generator building.Construction is probably the noisiest period of geothermal

turn of events, yet even construction noise by and large remaining parts underneath the

65 dBA. Besides, noise pollution related with the construction period of geothermal

development, similarly as with most construction, is an impermanent impact that closes

when construction ends. Well pad construction can take anyplace from half a month or

months to a couple of years, as it depends on the depth of the well. The well-drilling and

testing period of geothermal development for the most part doesn't surpass the noise
guidelines, they are brief, and the noise pollution they produce isn't perpetual. Be that

as it may, well-drilling operations regularly occur 24 hrs each day, seven days every

week. Noise from ordinary power plant activity for the most part comes from the three

segments of the power plant: the cooling tower, the transformer, and the turbine-

generator building. The delivered noise is in whisper's range (ENVIRONMENTAL

IMPACTS OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY.).

5.3 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS 

During the activity period of geothermal power plants, environmental engineers

and researchers are depended with the errand of checking their effects on the

environment. With a very much planned checking plan, they are kept educated

regarding the states of the system which they are liable for keeping up and a sound

environmental administration plan guarantees that the observing is completed in a

successful way inside the limits of their perception space, as per guideline and best

practices. Similar to the case with the power plant engineer, the environmental

specialist ought to endeavor to apply preventive measures, to guarantee proceeded

with food of the indigenous habitat. For the operation in geothermal power plants, it

cannot be viewed as isolated systems as it relies on high enthalpies in geothermal fluids

that can draw heat content from rocks beneath the surface of the earth. Geothermal

power plants need to have cooling fluids to dispose of waste heat to the surroundings.

These can be new or salt water that makes a one-time go through a condenser,

conveying the waste heat into a nearby stream, lake or sea. The cooling fluid can

likewise be water that conveys waste heat into the surrounding in latent form through an
evaporative cycle in a cooling tower or air that cools a dry condenser (Environmental

Monitoring of Geothermal Power Plants in Operation, 2011).

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