Discharge and Velocity Measurements, Muller (ed.

), © 1988 Balkema, Rotterdam, ISBN 90 6191 782 4

Field measurements of discharge and velocity

J.J.Peters
Hydraulic Research Laboratory, Chiitelet, Ministry ofPublic Works, Belgium, and Laboratory of Hydrology, Free
University ofBrussels VUB, Belgium

ABSTRACT : Flow gauging methods exist since long. New developments during the last
decades concerned the methodologies, techniques and instrumentation. The enhanced use
of electronics allowed new instrumentation based on, for example, electromagnetic,
laser-optic and acoustic principles. After a short review of the actual situation,
some needs for development are presented in relation with case studies, with special
emphasis on problems encountered in developing countries. Beside the development of
new instrumentation, prominence should be given to general and specific guidelines
about their use in the various environments. Ma nuf act ur ers must indicate clearly the
limits of applicability of the instruments.

1 INTRODUCTION well choosen gauging sections; hydrogra-

phers interested in a detailed s urface
Dr. W.R. WHITE has presented a very flow field in areas of difficult navi-
comprehensive review of methods for flow gation conditions; river engineers need-
gauging in open channels (White 1987). ing cross- sectional velocity di s tri -
Despite the large range of available butions at different time sc,.lt'> .~ i n re-
standards, methods and instruments, l a t i on with sediment transport; environ-
engineers and hydroloe'ists have still to mental engineers wanting information
face new needs, especially in relation about the timeaveraged- as well as
with the various environments of about the turbulent flow field for
application. analysis or prediction of mixing
This lecture is adressed to all users phenomena; urban hydrologists or urban
working in fields as different as sewers, hydraulicians, sanitary engineers con-
very large or very small rivers, cerned wi th mass flow and with hydrodyn-
navigable canals, but also to the amic phenomena in non stationary con-
ma nu fac tu rers . Particular problems en- ditions governing resuspension processes
countered in developing countries will be of sediment deposits; etc ..•
analy s ed : ma nu fac tur ers must be confron- All these "field users" have at their
ted with the special problems of use, disposal standards, guidelines, pro-
installation and maintenance in difficult cedures and instruments, traditionally
economic and climatologic conditions. The used in their organization. They gener-
analysis of the needs for further devel- ally do not question the choice of
opments will consider methods, techniques techniques or devices.
and instruments.

2.2 About the methods

2 EXISTING METHODS
Discharge measuring methods
2.1 About the users Table 1 summarizes the discharge
measuring methods (see also Herschy
" Fi el d" users may be s ubdi vid e d i n vah.ous 1978). Direct discharge determinations
g roup s , th e o b jec t ives a nd wor k e n vi r o n- (mass per unit time) in the field are
me nt s of whi c h a r e someti mes ex t reme l y rare the electromagnetic discharge
different hydrologists interested in method and the tracer dilution method.
bulk flow determination at particular, The velocity-area method may also be

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Table 1. Methods for flow gauging

Parameter commonly to be Type of measurement

determined

h V A EMF c Calib. Single Continuous

almost I non
stationary

DIRECT METHOD

- Electromagnetic discharge * * * *
gauging method (1]
- Tracer dilution method * * (a)
(1]

ALMOST DIRECT METHOD

- Velocity - area method * * * * (a)

(1] (1 to n]

INDIRECT METHOD

- Slope - area method * * * *

(2] (2]
- Stage - discharge method * * *
Tracer (pulse) gauging * * * (*)
*
method
- Flow measuring structures * * * * (a)
(1, 2 or
special structures more]
(specially designed)
existing structures
(not purposely designed)
- Mathematical models * * * * * * *
(flood routing) (n] (n] (n] (? l (? l

h water level Calib. = calibration

v = water velocity (1 to n] number of sampling points needed
A
EMF
cross-sectional area
electromagnetic field
* necessary
(*) possible but not necessary
C tracer concentration (a) continuous measurements not always poss-
ible under non stationary conditions

considered as a (almost) direct method, forms);

needing the measurement of a velocity - accessibility for installation and
(field) and of the cross-sectional area. maintenance;
A third group comprises all methods where - availability;
the discharge is determined indirectly, - economy (installation and maintenance
by measuring an effect, a result of the costs);
flow. - and others.
The choice of the method may be based Except for the direct methods (electro-
on a wide variety of criteria magnetic and dilution) and for the tracer
- stationarity of the flow; (pulse) injection method, the discharge
continuity of the gauging; is gauged through the measurement of
- geometry and stability of the channel water level(s) and/or water vel-
(including alignment, vegetation, bed- ocity(ies).

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Flow velocity measurements Table 3. Water velocity measurement
There are many cases where the flow vel-
ocity only is needed, without a discharge Eulerian
determination : local (point) velocities
in eulerian coordinates or flow paths in - Point velocity measurement
lagrangian coordinates. The techniques hydrometric prope ller (rotating
are generally the same as these used for element current meter)
the discharge measurement. * longitudinal (horizontal) axis
propeller meter
About the techniques and instruments * vertical axis cup meter
To illustrate the variety of available * transversal (horizontal) axis meter
techniques and instruments, we will limit (paddle wheel)
this presentation to water level and differential pressure probe (Pitot
water velocity determination (table 2 and tube)
3). pendulum-type meter
The different techniques may be subdiv- acoustic probe
ided in : electromagnetic probe
- mechanical measurements; laser probe
- electrical measurements; heated - element meters (hot wire,
- wave travel time measurements; hot film, hot bead)
- pressure measurements; - Transversal integrated velocity measure-
- electromagnetic force measurements; ment (over a horizontal line)
- tracer travel time measurements; • acoustic probe
- heat dissipation measurements. - Vertical integrated velocity measure-
ment (over a vertical line)
• velocity head rod
3. NEEDS FOR FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS - Cross-sectional integrated velocity
measurement
During the last decades, electronics electromagnetic (coil) direct
improved the more common methods discharge measurement method
electronic pulse counters for propeller
current meters, radiopositioning etc ••• Lagrangian
Furthermore, new methods were invented,
for example the moving boat, an inter- - Floats
esting alternative of the velocity-area surface floats
method. depth floats
New methods were invented or became rod floats (velocity integrated over
operational because of progress in elec- a certain depth)
tronics the electromagnetic discharge -Tracer
gauging, the acoustic flow meter, the
laser flow meter, the electromagnetic
dischar ge ga uging , e t c . . . .
Renewable energies, such as wind or
solar energy, teletransmission techniques
(by cable, radio and sa tellite),
Table 2. Water level measurement microelectronics a . o. opened new
perspectives for flow gauging in remote
- Mechanical/visual level measurement areas •
• staff gauge To describe the needs for further de-
• float operated gauge velopments is a kind of a wager. It
- Electrical level measurement depends so closely on every particular
resistance gauge case, on every environment that the fol-
capacitance gauge lowing description is not meant to be
electric level sensor (servomotor complete or precise, but rather to de-
operated) velop some ideas in relation with own or
- Measurement of wave travel time known experiences.
acoustic gauge (ultrasonic; through To begin with, some examples of cases
air or water) where needs were identified :
laser gauge - gauging in wild, alluvial rivers
- Pressure measurement (remote areas);
electrical pressure probe (piezo- - gauging in large canals or canalised
electrical, inductive, capacitive) rivers;
pneumatic (bubble) gauge - gauging in sewers.

181
3.1 Wild alluvial rivers
Wild alluvial rivers, with their ever
changing morphology, their eroding banks,
their sometimes high floods pose peculiar
problems.
First of all, it is often not easy to
find good discharge gauging sections and
water level gauging stations.
Furthermore, there is . often a lack of
topographic data and no bridges or cable-
ways available.
Discharges may be determined with a
velocity area method :
- exploration of the velocity from an
anchored vessel, sometimes from a of the moving boat method.
bridge or cableway;
- moving boat;
- float tracking.
Stage may be determined with different
types of instruments, but installation
problems due to changing shoaling or bank
caving are difficult to overcome.
Possibilities of new developments are :
a. positioning
Topographic positioning can be supplanted
by radiopositioning, which became more
effective, more accurate and less costly
during the last years; there is a need
for lighter, portable and low energy
devices.
Float gauging is in some cases the only
applicable method in non navigable areas
or when the flow field is complex. Auto-
matic float tracking must be improved
with radio positioning, topographic pos-
itioning (eventually by night with
lighted floats), radar or aerial photo-
graphies. Float tracking is also a
complementary technique to bathymetric
surveying, providing the flow field.
Aerial photographies, generally taken from
an aircraft or from an helicopter are
expensive. In sane cases remote operated
cameras hanged at a captive balloon
provide a relatively inexpensive solution
to the positioning problem.
b. flow gauging technique
In large alluvial rivers, flow gauging
with current meters happens to be diffi-
cult or inaccurate because of the varying
direction of the currents in the gauging
section, because of turbulence, floating
debris, or the presence of bedforms, etc.
A first need concerns additional
guidelines, on the one hand some more
general, on the other hand some more
specific, taking into account different
local working conditions.
182
A second need concerns analysis of
available information to optimize
operation procedures. A well known
problem is the choice of the number of
verticals, of the number of samplings per
vertical and of the sampling time in each
station. Such an analysis could improve
the existing guidelines. A standard
procedure is not always the best !
A third need concerns the development
of currentmeters with indication of the
direction of the flow and eventually of
the depth; these exist, but are generally
expensive.
A fourth need concerns an improvement
In rivers
with floating debris (weed, brush-wood)
the currentmeter may be continuously
caught and its functioning disturbed. The
design of a two component electromagnetic
flo"~.meter, measuring the flow in
magnitude and direction at the surface of
a well profiled immerged device could be
investigated .
A fifth need could concern the design
of instrumentation to measure accurately
the velocity profile near the bed in
relation with bedfonns and sediment
transport measurements. Similar devices
were designed by oceanographers, but
their use in rivers poses peculiar
problems.
c. stage
There is a need for new instruments,
which could be installed in a safe place
(land, island or stable shoal, away from
eroding banks) with the sensor placed at
a remote location, under water, at a known
fixed level. Pressure transducers and
pneumatic (bubble) gauges may fit these
requirements. Only the former may operate
over long periods with a renewable energy
source (wind or solar energy).This
available instrumentation was generally
developed for the industry and its
usability in open field must be checked.
3.2. Gauging in large canalised rivers
Many rivers were canalised for navigation.
Due to the increase of the cross-
sectional area (widening and deepening)
and the operation of weirs and locks, it
is often impossible to record
continuously the discharges with a simple
method such as the stage-discharge or the
slope-area method. The acoustic flow
meter became a very interesting solution
to this non stationary problem, but some
difficulties still remained :
 influence of an irregular velocity
distribution on the accuracy;
- influence of water density stratific-
ation (due for example to thermal
pollution) on the propagation of the
acoustic waves;
- influence of water quality (solid
content, gases, plants and debris);
influence of bed changes in very
shallow or very wide cross sections.
Large efforts are actually devoted to
ameliorate this promising technique.
Calibration at very low flow rates (a
few centimeters per second) is another
difficult task, beyond the possibilities
of most rotating element current meters.
Electromagnetic current meters can cope
with this problem, but they are very
costly. Vertical axis meters with
Savonius rotor have a very low start-up
velocity but are also too costly. New and
cheaper instruments of this type were
recently developed; efforts should be
maintained.
3.3. Gauging in sewers
Sewers became, during the last decade, a
very interesting field for testing and
development of flow gauging methods,
techniques and instruments. The choice of
these is limited by the quality of the
water sensors, propellers and other
devices are rapidly spoiled or clogged by
grease, oil, paper, plastics and other
pollutants.
The size and shape of the sewers
determines also this choice. Many
catchments are actually instrumented for
research, design or management
(Maksimovic 1986). Continuous . gauging i s
frequently required. In unitary systems,
the flow is clearly non stationary during
storm events and sediment deposition
di sturbs the normal use of methods and
instruments.
The experience gained until now in
sewers have shown whi ch methods,
techniques and instruments are most
adapted.
In almost stationary conditions, the
slope-area, stage discharge and electro-
magnetic discharge gauging methods are
best suited. Also special structures or
exi s ting structures may be used for flow
gauging, although special struc tures such
as weirs or flumes er ea te an obstruction
and additional resistance to the flow,
not always allowed.
The velocity- area method is generally
not appropriate for continuous gauging.
In non stationary conditions, electro-
183
magnetic gauging is best suited, but
limited to pipes with small diameters.
For larger sewersizes, special structures
with a control section, such as an abrupt
drop, may be used as long as there is no
backwater effect.
Needs for further development of
methods are :
Electraaagnetic discharge meter
If the method is well suited for full
pipe flow, its application in open
channel (sewer) flow is limited by
following factors :
a. the difficult installation in existing
sewersystems;
b. the quality of the effluent spoiling
the electrodes and modifying the
inductance;
c. the difficulty of in situ calibration.
When new sy s tems are built, the gauging
station may be inserted in an inverted
siphon.
Experiences with in si tu measurements
could serve to establish guidelines,
including requirements for new instal-
lations .
Velocity-area methods
For larger sewers, the continuous
velocity-area method can be used in
different ways
a. sane ma nufacture r s have developed
electromagnetic current meters instal,led
on the bottom, combined with water level
gauges. The use of these devices is
rendered difficult by sedimentation, but
also because there is no clear relation-
ship between the average velocity and the
measured one. Experiences were conducted
with the currentmeter installed on a
profiled sill.
b. experiences are going on about the use
of floating surface currentmeters , drum-
type or paddle - wheel type. This kind of
instruments was prefered because of the
more stable relationship between average
and measured velocities. The paddle-
wheel type is little affected by
pollution or floating debris, but its
starting velocity remains high because of
the heavy construction, due to the rough
working conditions .
c. slope area and stage discharge eventually in the use of sophisticated
relationships may be used easily. Main equipments, but not necessary in their
problems concern the stability of the maintenance or repair.
relationships because of a.o. silting or Other countries are in the phase of
erosion (calibration problem) 1 but starting up measuring networks and do not
concern also the installation, power have experience with the methods,
supply and maintenance difficulties of techniques and instrumentation available.
level gauges. Intercomparative tests Furthermore, the practical problems
showed that pneumatic (bubble) gauges, encountered in some undeveloped areas may
pressure transducers and acoustic level be very specific : flow gauging in arid
gauges are most suited 1 but cannot be zones, in tropical rivers, in large
employed in all cases. unstable deltas, etc.
Further developments of instruments are There are differents ways to help
related to their robustness, low energy developing countries to overcome these
consumption and reliability. barriers.

d. flow measuring structures

• specific structures 4. 1. Guidelines
These structures are generally designed
for open channel flow such as rivers and International organisations such as .WMO,
canals. Their application in sewers ISO, IASH, IAHR should promote the
requires special precautions due to the further development of guidelines,
already mentioned difficulties. There is manuels and other documentation about
a need to develop structures which are flow gauging in general or in specific
less affected by the pollution elements, cases.
presenting the lowest additional resist- In the past, WMO has already conducted
ance to the flow and easy to install, very use full intercomparati ve studies
preferably disassemblable. about flow gauging instruments
(Starosolszky 1977).
• existing structures We should not forget the importance of
It is often possible to design a sewer- guidelines for gauging procedures in
system in such a way that flow gauging remote areas with very simple techniques
becomes easy, using structures such as and instruments compass 0 self-made
abrupt drops, passages from sub- to floats, sounding by hand, etc.
supercritical flow, through a simple There is also an urgent need for clear
level measurement in a control section. reviews of available techniques and
instruments, so that a sound choice can
In a general way, specific guidelines for be made.
sewer gauging are needed.

e. mathematical modeling 4. 2. Methods

In some cases of existing, complex
systems, the installation of a tale- Flow gauging methods must be developed,
transmitted flow data acquisition improved or adapted to specific local
network, connected to a central pro- conditions. Discharge may, for example,
cessing unit allows the use of be measured by the moving boat method
mathematical models to follow, on-line, with simple instrumentation, eventually
the hydraulic behaviour of the system. in combination with a cableway.
Analysis of ongoing experiences in this The possibilities of the already
field could be useful to new mentioned aerial photographic techniques
installations. Guidelines are necessary (satelites, captive balloons) have to be
to resume these experiences as well about further investigated.
the methods as about techniques or
instruments.
4.3. Instrumentation

4. SPECIFIC NEEDS OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES The manufacturers of instrumentation must

be faced with the specific needs such as
Problems of flow gauging in developing robustness, simpleness, easy maintenance.
countries are related to their economic, The production costs of electro-
technical and even social environments. mechanical equipment are actually higher
Some of them have skilled and trained than those of full microelectronical
technicians specialised in gauging, devices. Nevertheless, considered over

184
the life time of the instruments, it
could be more interesting to buy
instruments which could be maintained by
local people, easily and with low cost.
4.4. Data processing
Manuals for data processing are needed
with special attention for error
detection. It is possible to organise the
measurements in such a way that
validation becomes · easy . Statistical
techniques allow correlation analysis,
for example between data of two or more
water level gauging stations .
5, CONCLUSIONS
There is clearly a need for further
development in the field of flow gauging
in open channels. If some needs are
similar to those found in laboratory
conditions, the ones encountered in the
field may be quite different. Sophisti-
cation is not necessarily synonym of
improvement. Efforts must be devoted to
learn people which methods, techniques
~nd instruments are adapted to their
particular requirements, depending on the
objectives.
Many problems may be eas ily solved i f
the hydraulics are well · understood,
Therefore guidelines should remember the
basic principles .involved,
As users, we are sometimes upset by the
185
presentation, by manufac turer s , of a
level gauge as a "flow discharge measuring
device". Limits in use must be stated
clearly.
Developments and improvements have to
be tested in the field, eventually with
the help of users or international
organisations.
An important domain for further
development is flow gauging in relation-
ship with sediment transport
measurements. But this subject is so
large that it could be possible to devote
a whole seminar or workshop to it.
REFERENCES
Herschy, R.W. 1978. Hydrometry. Principles
and Practices. Chichester, John Wiley &
Sons.
Maksimovic, C. & M. Radojkovic 1986.
Urban drainage catchments. Selected
worldwide rainfall-runoff data from
experimental catchments. Oxford,
Pergamon Press .
Starosolszky, 0. & L. Muszkalay 1977,
Report on intercomparison of principal
hydrometric instruments (first phase,
1972- 1975). Geneva, WMO.
White, W.R. 19787 . Discharge measuring
methods in open channels. Short course
on discharge and velocity measurement.
IAHR Section on hydraulics instrumen-
tation, Zurich . Balkema, in prep-
aration .