1 of 9

PAPER 1: CORE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

ROCKS AND WEATHERING
!

PLATE TECTONICS
• Dragging theory = convergent
• Convection current theory = divergent
• Hotspot = there’s a pressure below the surface of earth that causes hot mantle to rise as lava =
thus volcano is formed. Ex: Hawaii
Movement of plates theories
1. Convection current theory: radioactive decay in the core of earth create a convection current
that pushes magma to rises to the surface and spread as a ridge, while in the other end,
heavier and denser crust is pushed or sinks back into the earth interior
2. Dragging theory: plates are dragged down or subducted in the older edge/end as it has become
heavy and dense. Hotter plate can be found in the mid atlantic ridge and plate gets cooler as it
moves away from it.
3. Hotspot: a plume of lava in earths interior rises vertically thru the mantel. If such outward flow of
viscous rock occur in plate margins it may cause crust to rift (create drag force that cause
cracks, moves) and if not, it became like hawaiian hotspot

Divergent movement / Constructive Boundary

• when two plates move apart from each other
• as result: a new land form bc of the magma that rises and cools
• Convection current forces molten rock (magma) to well up in the interior and eventually crack the
crust above it, moving it apart
• Fresh magma came up thru the crack and new rock is formed
• Evidence: older rock is found with increasing distance from ridges
• New crust is formed usually in the middle of the ocean -- ridges are zone of shallow earthquake

• Oceanic-oceanic
South america and africa crust plate = Mid Atlantic Ridge

• Continental-Continental
- South african and arabian crust plate diverge, middle part falls = canyon and African rift valley
- African and Arabian crust plate diverge = gaps between the two land = water from indian
ocean = Red sea

Sea floor spreading: mechanism to explain continental drift theory by Hess (formation of
Ocean Ridge)
• Continental drift: theory believing that pangea, a single continent, break up and drift apart to form
the continents we found today --> the drifting and breaking of plate is because of a process
called sea floor spreading
• Creation of new oceanic crust because of the divergent movement
• When lava cools down in the sea floor after rising ip from earths interior, its magnetic grains
moves in the direction of earths magnetic field as it cools down (This process is called as
paleomagnetism)
• The elevation formed by the separation of two plates that makes hot mantle to rise and fill the
gap = mid ocean ridges: consist of hotter and less dense rock hence why it elevates
• Spreading rate:
- slow= caused by small discontinues magma chambers = result in pronounced rift
- faster= caused by large continuous magma chambers = result in smooth topography
• Mid ocean ridge = the longest linear uplifted feature resulting from sea floor spreading
ex: mid atlantic ridge, east pacific rise

CORE PHYSICAL: ROCKS AND WEATHERING

2 of 9

Transform
• two plates sliding each other = create a transform fault (fault zone) + shallow earthquake, no
mountains
• Example: San Andrean fault, california

Destructive boundary / Convergent movement

• When oceanic lithosphere plate collides with another plate, resulting one crust to subduct / forced
to sinks under the other plate under the mantle because of the collision and gravity
• Subducted plate = denser colder
• When two plates converge, a deep sea trench is formed as thr denser plate is forced downward
(subducted) into the mantle -- deep earthquake is common
• The amount of subducted plate balanced the amount of constructive plate (from divergent
movement)

Subduction Process
• When a colder and denser plate is being pushed down into the eatths interior beneath the other
plate, which results from the convergent movement or the collision of 2 plates
• Density of oceanic plate is greater than continental because of the presence of water, making it
easier to be subducted underneath a continental plate
• Subduction zone: dips about 30-70' --> the older it is, the deeper (sink passively bc heavy)
• results of the process
- trench: deeper part of the ocean. long narrow depression in sea floor
- benioff zone: the zone of subduction = narrow zone of earthquake that dips away
from trench
- Folded sediments:
- folded mountain in the hotter, less dense plate (continental) that may contain
volcano
- folded mountain is sea may form Island Arc containing volcano (and
underwater volcano)

Oceanic-oceanic convergence - Formation of Island Arc

• Oceanic - Oceanic
Phillipines and pacific (dense) = Mariana Island Arc + underwater volcanoes
+trench
• Oceanic lithosphere that is colder denser and heavier, is subducted under other oceanic
litosphere
• Lighter plate is folded parallel to trench which creates island arc
• usually in margins of shrinking oceans like the pacific
• Results of oceanic oceanic convergence:
1. Trench outer rise -- a low buldge on the sea floor ahead of the subduction zone as the plate
bends when its subducted
2. Outer slope of trench is gentle but broken by faults because of the bending while inner
slope is steeper and contains fragments of subducting plate
3. Trench floor is flat and covered with ashes and sediments
4. Island arc is formed parallel to a trench on the overriding plate

Convergence of 2 continental plate

• both plate may be folded and buckles creating fold mountaines
• Involve crust thickening, deformetion, and volcanic activity to some
• Continental - Continental: Indian and eurasia = Himalaya mount. range
(in the middle of two plate. little subduction of indian)

CORE PHYSICAL: ROCKS AND WEATHERING

3 of 9

Oceanic-continental convergence 

1. Formation of Andes Mountain Range
• Volcanic
• Pacific (o, dense bc water) and south american plate (c) = andes mountains (cotopaxi volcano) +
trench
• Subduction of oceanic crust of pacific into the south american continental plate
• Continental crust of south america is folded, creating highest mountain range in america with
most if it having volcanic mountains (partial melting of descending or subducted plate creates
magmas for the andesitic volcanoes in the continent)

2. Formation of Himalaya Mount. Range

• Collision of asia and indian plate
• Oceanic crust of india subduct toward asia, closing up tethys ocean with the folded sediments in
the form of folding and faulting
• Further subduction of the indian plate makes asia overrides india and hence there is a thickening
of the continental crust
• This thickening is what creates the uplift that became himalayan mountain range 


CORE PHYSICAL: ROCKS AND WEATHERING

4 of 9

SLOPE PROCESSES
• Slope refers to solid land surface, includes Inclined surface (Hillslope), Angle of inclination
(Slope Angle)
• Factors affecting slope forms
5. Climate
- humid: rounder slope bc chemical weathering, soil keep, fluvial transport
- humid tropics: accelerated chemical weathering dominates. bc the hot, wet conditions
and the availability of organic acids. Deep clays are produced, favouring low slope
angles.
- arid: jagged or straight slope bc mechanical weathering and sheet wash
6. Geological Structure
- includes faults, angle of dip, vulcanicity — determine the strength of rock and create
lined of potential weakness
- rock types — determine vulnerability to weathering and resistance to downward
movement and erosion
7. Soil type
- soil structure and texture determine how much it can hold water hence determine its
resistance to mass movement
i.e: clay holds more than sand hence clay slope without vegetation has little
resistance and prone to mass movements
- Regolith is the superficial and unconsolidated material found at the Earth’s surface. It
includes soil, scree, weathered bedrock and deposited material.

——> its unconsolidated nature makes it prone to downslope movement. The extra
weight of a deep regolith will increase the likelihood of instability.
8. Aspect
- the direction in which the slope faces
- facing north: remain in shades = freezing temperatures
- facing south: exposure to sunlight = temperature fluctuates around 0’ = subject to freeze-
thaw
9. Vegetation
- more: decrease overland flow and erosion
- deforested: intense erosion and gullying
- dense vegetation increase the chance of landslips: reducing surface wash —> soil builds
up between trees —> deepening the regolith —> heavy and high failure (slides) potential

Mass Movements: large scale movement of the earth surface that is not accompanied by
moving agent (river, glacier, ocean wave)
• very slow: soil creep
• fast: avalanches
• dry: rockfalls
• very fluid: mudflows
——> depending on Speed of movement, Water content, Type of movement (flowing, sliding,
slumping), the material moving

CORE PHYSICAL: ROCKS AND WEATHERING

5 of 9

• Causes of mass movement

1. Gravity
- acts to move material downslope
- acts to stick particle to the slope
2. Slope Angle
- downward movement is
proportional to the weight of
particle and some angle
3. Water content
- water lubricates particle or fill the
spaces between particle which
creates pore pressure that
increase the ability for materials
to move

4. Reduction of Shear Strength

- shear strength: internal resistance of the slope

5. Increase in Shear Stress

- shear stress: forces that attempt to pull a mass downslope

Water: may does both bc of its weight. —> increase water volume, prolonged rain, wising water
table, saturated surface layer
- reduce cohesion of particles bc saturation —> this pore-water pressure decrease the frictional
strength of solid material = weakening the slope

• How downslope movement can be opposed:

1. Friction — but can be overcome by water in gentle slope and solifluction
2. Water as Cohesive Forces — bind the particles, but when there are too much water content
it liquifies
3. Pivoting — when debris layers have embedded materials
4. Vegetation — binds up the soil and stabilises, but too dense can create slides

Soil Creep or Heave

• its a slow, small scale movement happens mostly in winter
• Talus Creep: slow movement of fragments on a scree slope
• Individual soil particles are pushed or heaved to the surface by (a) wetting, (b) heating or (c)
freezing of water — Freeze–thaw: expansion (when freeze) and contraction (when thaw)
hence moving the materials very slowly
• Forms terracettes —>

Slumps and Flows

• Slumps: on weaker rocks (clay), involves rotation movement along a curved slip plane.
usually caused by the undercutting of cliff’s base and weakening by erosion (less shear
strength)

CORE PHYSICAL: ROCKS AND WEATHERING

6 of 9

• Flows: more continuous, less jerky, usually deform the detached materials which are usually
small (deeply weathered clay)
- higher water content enable materials to move on gentle angles and faster

Slides
• when an entire mass of material moves along a slip plane
• includes Rockslides or Landslides (any materials rocks/regolith/etc) and rotational slides
(produces massive steps or terraces)
• occurs because: weak rocks + steep slopes + active undercutting
• when mass moves, it retain its shape and structure until it hits the bottom

• Reasons for Slip planes:

1. junction of two layer
2.

Landslide: material moves downslope because of shear failure

Falls
• occur on steep slopes (more than 40’) where bare rock faces where joints are exposed
• initial cause: weathering —> rock gets detached and fall under the influence of gravity
• short fall: straight scree, long fall: concave scree

Water and Sediment Movement on Hillslopes

Surface Wash
• when soil’s infiltration capacity is exceeded
• UK: occurs when winter as water drains from saturated or frozen grounds
• in arid region: particle size limits percolation to occur
Sheetwash
• un-channeled flow of water over soil surface
• sheetwash may break into areas of high velocity divided by low velocity
• may cause gullies to form?
• Sheetwash —> erosion of soil because of Raindrop impact
• riil:
• Raindrop Impact / Rainsplash Erosion
- depending on: rain intensity,, velocity, raindrop distribution
- digram


CORE PHYSICAL: ROCKS AND WEATHERING

7 of 9

Weathering:
the decomposition and disintegration of rocks in situ (in place).
it breaks down rocks and allows erosion and transport to occur.

Decomposition: chemical weathering. creates altered rock such as kaolinite (china clay) from
granite
Disintegration: mechanical weathering. creates smaller, angular fragments of the same rock, such
as scree
Biological weathering: plants and animals chemically alter rocks and physically break rocks
through their growth and movements
Cracks: lines of weakness within the rock

Features of Weathering

• minerals are mostly formed under high
pressure and high temperatures
• products are irreversible
• some changes are clastic (fragments of old
rocks, such as scree) and some are pliable
(flexible, plastic, such as clay)
• causes changes in density, volume, grain
size, surface area, permeability,
consolidation, strengths
• forms new minerals and solution
• some minerals may resist weathering
(quartz)
• minerals and salts may be removed,
transported, concentrated or consolidated
• it enables rock to be transported and eroded
• new landforms are made


Mechanical Weathering
The breaking down on rock in situ
1. Freeze thaw / ice crystal growth / frost shattering
• most effective where: - Temperature frequently fluctuates above 0’ C
- Theres plenty of moisture
= Alpine (above tree lines) and periglacial
• Expands rock by 30%
• Rock has cracks, during rain, water gets inside (in joints and cracks). In night time, water
freezes and this exert pressure on the rock and thus expanding the crack in rock. In day time,
the water melts, leaving a bigger crack that allows more rain to get in and repeating the
process

2. Salt Crystalisation / Salt Crystal Growth

• The decomposition of rock by the solution of salt
• Happens where: Hot desert region of Low Rainfall & High Temperature
= Causes salt to stick together and accumulate just below the surface
or in polar areas where salts are deposited from snowflakes
• Two types of salt crystal growth
1. When temperature fluctuates around 26-28’c Sodium Sulphate and Sodium Carbonate
expands,exerting pressure in joints and forcing them to crack
2. When water evaporates, leaving salt behind in its cracks. When temperature rises, salt
expands and exert pressure on the rock, expanding the crack.

CORE PHYSICAL: ROCKS AND WEATHERING

8 of 9

3. Disintegration
• Happens where: Hot desert areas with large diurnal temperature range
= Day: exceed 40’C - Night: only little above 0’C
• Causes by Rock as poor heat conductor
• The extreme change in temperature only happens and stresses to the outer layer of rock
• Causing outer layer to EXFOLIATE or peels off

4. Pressure Release / Dilatation

• Overlying rocks are removed by erosion = pressure to underlying rock is removed
- Underlying rock to expand
- Causes a fracture parallel to the surface
• Other factors: unloading of pressure (removal of great weight such as glacier) — causes cracks
and joints to form at right angle of the unloading place
- overlying (ontop) pressure release = creates horizontal pseudo-bedding planes
- horizontal pressure release (in cliff faces) = creates vertical joints

CORE PHYSICAL: ROCKS AND WEATHERING

9 of 9

Chemical Weathering
• changes in rock composition and altering rock substances
• key medium: water
• Effective in subsurface: groundwater contains acid from plants and soil. Acid helps the breaking
down process of ricks (limestones, chalk, granite)
•

1. Carbonation Solution
• Rocks with Calcium carbonate = Limestones, Chalk
• Rainfall thats combined with CO2 creates carbonic acid
• Calcium carbonate + carbonic acid = calcium bicarbonate
• calcium bicarbonate is soluble and removed by percolating water
• effectiveness depends on water pH

2. Hydrolysis
• occurs in rocks with orthoclase feldspar —> Rocks like Granite
• Feldspar, Mica, Quartz + Acid water = Kaolin (aka china clay), silicic acid and potassium hydroxyl
• pottasium hydroxyl and silicic acid but they removed in solution while other granite materials like
mica and quartz remains.

3. Hydration
• Process where certain minerals absorb water, expands, and change
• Anhydrite + Water = Gypsum —> also involves mechanical weathering bc it expands about 0.5%

4. Oxidation
• Where iron (Fe) compound reacts with oxygen and produce redding-coating (rust)
• Iron minerals reacting to oxygen
• common in well-drained area

CORE PHYSICAL: ROCKS AND WEATHERING