PAPER 1: CORE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

HYDROLOGY AND FLUVIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY

DRAINAGE BASIN SYSTEM

• Hydrological Cycle: cycle of water between atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere
• Drainage basin: catchment area from which a river system obtains its water.
—> Open system = it allows movement of energy and matter across
boundaries.
It has input: from ppt, and output: runoff, evt, leakage (from
deeper subsurface to other basin) in which water moves not
only within the boundary of the basin.
• Water storage = vegetation, surface, soil moisture, groundwater, water channel
• human modification storage = irrigation, land drainage, abstraction of ground water,
surface water for industrial and domestic use

Drainage Basin System

• Precipitation(PPT): input of system. conversion and transfer of moisture form the
atmosphere into the land <snow, hail, dew rain>

• Surface Water: permanent (lakes, wetlands, swamps) temporary (small puddles from
storm, turloughs seasonal lakes in limestones)

• Overland flow / Surface Runoff: water flows over the land’s surface
- when ppt > infiltration rate
—> high rf intensity and low inf capacity: semi arid areas, cultivated fields
- when soil is saturated already
• Interception: when ppt is caught and (may) stored by vegetation
- increases with crop density and more surface area
- less in grasses (small surface area of grass shoot) and more in deciduous
woodlands (more surface area)
- agriculture cereals increase bc high crop density
- acts to slow down speed of water arriving to the land
1. Interception loss: water is caught before then evaporated away into the
atmosphere or absorbed by the plants
• Transpiration: water from precipitation evaporated away from vegetation
2. Stem flow: water trickles down the vegetation, through its twigs, branches, and
finally to its main trunk and to the ground
3. Through: water falls in-between the gaps between plants or drips from its
leaves or branch directly to the ground

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• Infiltration: water soaks into the soil, into subsurface zone (zone of aeration /
vadose which seasonally wetted or dried up)
- infiltration depends on soil permeability (ability to transmit water thru its joints or
fissures) — sand > clay
- interception increases infiltration —> slow down = reduce splashes
- more vegetation = more porous
- infiltration capacity: max. rate in which soil can absorb rain
- factors influencing infiltration:

1. duration of rf (longer, less) 4. vegetation cover (more, more)
2. antecedent soil moisture (pre 5. raindrop size
existing. more saturated, less) 6. slope angle (steeper, less)

3. soil porosity (more, more)
• Soil moisture: water stored in the subsurface zone above the water table.
- coarse textured soil =
- after infiltrate as soil moisture => either absorbed and held, percolated,
evaporated, or through flow
- Field Capacity: amount of water held in soil after excess water drains away
(saturation or near saturation)
- Wilting point: range of moisture content in which plants permanently wilt

- deficit: when it falls below field - surplus: soil is saturated. water cant
capacity enter and runoff
- recharge: ppt exceeds evt. refilling - utilisation: water drawn to surface
of dried soil pores by capillary action


• Through Flow: water flowing thru soil in natural pipelines or percolines (lines of
concentrated water flow b/w soil horizons)

• Percolation: water moves slowly downwards from the soil into the bedrock
- depends on rock permeability (carboniferous limestone=slow)
- passes through rocks = filtering of water

• Water Table: upper level of an underground surface in which the soil or rocks are
permanently saturated with water. The water table separates the groundwater zone
that lies below it from the capillary fringe, or zone of aeration, that lies above it.

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• Groundwater: water that is stored in the subsurface zone (phreatic/saturated zone)
in rocks (aquifers)
- recharge: refilling of water in pores where it has been dried up from extraction bc
of human activities
- doesn't recycled (evaporated away) for 20000 yrs
- recharge occurs from:

1. infiltration 3. groundwater leakage and inflow
2. seepage (water from banks and (from aquifers)
water beds) 4. artificial (irrigation, reservoir)

- losses occurs from:

1. EVT (lowlying ares, water table is 3. grand water leakage and outflow
close to surface) 4. artificial abstraction (human takes
2. Natural discharge (spring flow up the water)

<recharging rivers>, seepage to
water body)
• Aquifers: permeable rocks in the subsurface zone that contains and stores water
- great reservoir of water
- 3 importance of aquifers:
1. natural regulation in hydrological cycle as water in aquifers move v slowly
and absorbing water that would’ve reach the stream rapidly
2. maintain stream flow during long dry periods
3. Springs may emerge (when water flow reach the surface) and it becomes
substantial source of river streams

• Base flow: when ground water seeps into the bed of river. becoming a part of river
discharge. acts to recharge river water in dry season. (increases slightly during wet
period)

• Evaporation: process where water is turned into water vapour and escapes into the
atmosphere.
- increases in warm dry period (arid semiarid) decreases in cold calm condition
(polar regions)
- Factors influencing:

1. temperature - most important 4. amount of water available
2. humidity 5. vegetation cover
3. windspeed 6. surface color (albedo)

- Transpiration: evaporation from living plant, principally leaves
- Evapotranspiration: evaporation happening from land, soil and other surfaces and
living plants combined
- Potential EVT: amount of water loss if there an unlimited supply of water


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 DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIP WITHIN DRAINAGE BASIN
• Storm hydrograph: how the discharge of a river varies over a short time normally
referring to a storm (or a group of it) occurring only in several days
• Before storm: groundwater / baseflow is the main supply of water in river
• During storm: some water infiltrates and some becomes runoff
—> runoffs reaches the river quickly (quick flow) causing a rapid
increase in water level
—> Rising limb: how fast the increase in water level (flood water)
—> Peak flow: maximum discharge of river resulting from the storm
—> Recessional limb: how fast the decrease in water level after the peak
—> Time lag: the time between the height of storm (highest rainfall) and
the maximum flow of the river
• River regime: the annual variation in the discharge of a river.
- resulting from: runoff, groundwater springs, from lakes, meltwater
- factors influencing the regime / the character of stream:
1. amount (and nature: raindrop, duration) of ppt
2. porosity and permeability of local rocks
3. shape/morphology of draining basin area and slope
4. type and amount of vegetation cover
5. type and amount of soil
6. Climate = most important
• Influences on storm hydrographs
- urban development = increase peak flow & decrease time lag => more
impermeable ground surfaces, increase in drainage density
- other factors:
• Climate
1. precipitation type and intensity:
- highly intensive RF = more run off = steep rising limb and high peak flow || low
intensity = more infiltration = longer time lag, low peak flow
- snow => sits on ground till melt => but sudden rapid melting = flooding high
runoff and high peak flow
2. Temperature, EVT:
- high temp = high evaporation = less water going to the river, low peak flow
- hot area = warm air (holds more water) = high peak flow when rain
- More vegetation cover = more interception = more transpiration = less water
reaching river = low peak flow
3. Antecedent Moisture:
- soil is saturated/nearly bc prev. rain = run off = high peak flow, short time lag

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• Drainage Basin Characteristics
1. Size and shape:
- smaller basin = respond faster = shorter time lag
- circular basin = quicker = shorter time lag || linear = longer
2. Density:
- urban basins = high drainage density=> many sewers and drain networks =>
shorter time lag || low density = longer
3. Porosity and Permeability of rocks and soils:
- impermeable surfaces = more runoff = higher peak flow (urban areas where
theres many cemented land) || chalk, gravel = permeable = water can infiltrate
and percolate = less peak flow, longer time lag
4. Rock type:
- Impermeable rocks (granite, clay) = greater peak flow, shorter time lag
- permeable rocks (chalk, limestone) = lower peak flow, longer time lag
5. Slopes:
- steeper = more run off = shorter time lag, high peak flow
6. Vegetation type:
- Forest vegetation = more interception = less run off = lower peak flow and
longer time lag
- deciduous trees in winter loss their leaves = less surface area = less interception
7. Land use:
- creating impermeable surfaces, reducing vegetation, building more drainage
channels (sewers, ditches, drains) = high peak flow, shorter time lag

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 RIVER CHANNEL PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS
• Erosion: process of wearing away of river bed and bank which happen either in a
form of
- Abrasion (corrasion): caused by the load carried by a river. the mechanical impact
by the debris eroding the river’s bed and banks. (increases as velocity increases)
- Attrition: wearing away of the load which are carried by the river. loads are
becoming smaller and rounder.
- Hydraulic Action: the force of air and water on the sides of river and in cracks. it
includes direct force of flowing water and cavitation (the force of air exploding
when air bubbles implodes and damages the rock)
- Corrosion // Solution: removal of chemical ions especially calcium
• Factors affecting erosion:

1. load (heavier, sharper) 5. water pH (more acidic. more
2. velocity (greater) solution)
3. gradient (steeper) 6. human impact (deforestation,
4. geology (soft, unconsolidated dams, bridges)

rocks)

• Sediment yield: the amount of sediment per unit area removed from a watershed by
flowing water during a specified period of time.
- calculates sediment and solute load to measure the rate land surface lowering by
fluvial denudation (denudation: the processes that cause the wearing away of the
Earth's surface by moving water, air, etc which reduces elevation and relief of
landforms)

• Transport: loads are transported downstream

1. Dissolved load: carried in the solution
2. Suspended load: smallest particle carries by river’s turbulence
- silt, clay, finesand
3. Saltated load: larger particles hops/bounces
- sand, gravel, small stones
4. Tracted/Bed load: heavy loads slides/rolls
- pebbles, boulders, gravels
• River capacity: amount of loads that river can carry (size of river)
• River competency: maximum size of load that river can move (velocity of stream)

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• Hjulstorm Curve: determine whether a river will erode, transport, or deposit sediment
• critical erosion velocity: lowest velocity at which grains of a given size can be
moved
• Entrainment: load being lifted into the flow

• 3 important features:
1. smallest and largest particles require high velocity to lift them
- clay: resist entrainment due to its cohesion
- gravel: its weight
2. higher velocity is needed for entrainment than transport
3. when velocity falls below a certain level, particles are deposited

• Factors Influencing velocity and energy of a stream:

1. gradient of channel bed
2. volume of water — precipitation
3. channel shape
4. channel roughness (friction)

• Patterns of Flows
1. Laminar Flow
- water flows in sheets or laminae, parallel to the channel bed
- smooth bed, straight channel, low velocity
- common in groundwater, glaciers
2. Helicoidal Flow
- horizontal turbulence in a corkscrewing motion
- alternating pools and riffles in channels, stream carry many loads
- erosion and deposition takes place = meanders are created
- deposition: from outer bank to inner bank
- Thalweg: line of maximum velocity and travels from outside the bank to outside
bank of meanders
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3. Turbulent/Vertical Flow
- high turbulence bc of the roughness
- Eddies: turbulent water that swirls
- Hydraulic Action may occur = eddies near the bed and banks —> air is trapped in
pores, cracks, with pressure —> create air bubbles —> eddies swirl away —>
pressure released, bubble implode/pops ==> weakening the materials of beds
- Corrosion/Abrasion may occur = turbulent flow create hollows in beds —> pebbles
or loads are trapped —> eddies swirls the load —> grinds the bed (may create
potholes overtime)
- Cavitation and vertical abrasion deepen the channel, hence river can cut down its
called ==> leading to gulley and gorge
- rough bed, complex channel (meanders w/ alternating pools and riffles), high
velocity
- rocky beds of mountain streams

Braidings
• Braidings: when channel is divided by islands or bars
- Islands: vegetated, long-lived, stable, elevated region of river where sediment that
has been deposited by the flow.
- Bars: unvegetated, usually short term, unstable
• Braidings occur when:
1. steep channel
2. many coarse materials
3. bank material is easily eroded
4. highly variable discharge
- tends to occur when stream dont have the capacity (size) to transport in a single
channel. common in periglacial and semi arid areas.
• Process:
- begins with mid channel bar grows downstream
- discharge decrease and flood occurs —> coarse load is deposited
- basis of bars is formed downstream
- flood is reduced —> finer sediments are deposited
- upper stream is grown with vegetation hence stabilised —> narrows the channel and
increase velocity

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Meanders
• main factors: channel width, discharge, nature of bed and banks
• causes of meanders
1. friction: rough bed —> causing turbulence and unstable stream flow = helicoidal
flow = water raised on the outer surface of pool and the return flow occurring
on depth
2. Sand bars may cause it to formed
3. Sinousity (length of stream channel in ratio of valley length): moderate
sinuosity —> low gradient/low energy: cant produce pools and riffles, too high;
too strong to allow cross channel meanders and alternating pools and riffles to
develop
4. Helicoidal Flow: the line of faster flow can move from side to side within the
channel hence creating the meander amplitude
• process:
- development of pools (eroded outer bank, deeper part. also create river cliff.) and
point bars (deposition of loads in inner bank. shallower part)
a) Thalweg (high velocity flow) flows from side to side. (meandering)
b) this thalweg creates helicoidal flows —> surface water flows towards the outer
bank, and bottom flow (underneath, on the bed) flows towards the inner bank
• Meanders can change overtime
1. migrate downstream and erode river cliffs
2. migrate laterally (sideway) and erode floodplain
3. exaggerated and become ox-bow lakes (cut-off)
• lateral erosion happens because of helicoidal flow that deepens outer bank of meander
• in times of flooding, more erosion —> river breaks through, exaggerating the
meandering. and creates steeper channel.
• in time, old meander is closed by deposition, leaving part of it as lakes
4. become intrenched and ingrown meanders
• Incised Meanders: meanders that are well developed on horizontally bedded rocks, and
form when river cuts through alluvium into underlying rocks.
—> well developed meander. occur when a river's base level has fallen giving the river
a large amount of vertical erosion power, allowing it to downcut.
a) Intrenched meanders: symmetrical meandering. formed when down-cutting is faster
than the lateral migration of meander. happens when theres a significant fall in base
sea level. (moves vertically) — <gooseneck of san juan, US>
b) Ingrown meanders: asymmetric cross section meander. result of lateral meander
migration. (moves laterally and vertically) — <seine, france>


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Waterfall
• where water spills over sudden change in gradient, undercutting rocks by hydraulic
impact and abrasion, thereby creating waterfall
• reasons for change in gradient:
1. band of resistant strata <niagara falls lime stone>
2. plateu edge <victoria falls, zimbabwe>
3. fault scrap <gordale, uk>
4. hanging valley <glencoyne, uk>
5. coastal cliffs
• migrating upstream: undercutting the base of waterfall creates overhang which
collapses overtime, creating gorge.

Leeves, Floodplain
• formed when river bursts its bank over a long period of time causing water losing its
velocity hence depositing coarse materials near its channel edge which formed and
embankments (leeves). then finer materials are carried and deposited furthur away
(floodplain)

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Deltas
• river sentiments deposited where a river enters a standing body of water (lake,
lagoon, sea, ocean)
• Conditions to form:
1. heavily laden river: brought many sediments <Nile. Mississippi>
2. Standing of body of water having negligible/gentle current: sentiments wouldn't
be washed or transported away but deposited. <Mediterranean. Gulf of Mexico>
3. Enhanced when water is saline: fluctuation or cohesive small particles
4. others: type od sediments, local geology, sea level changes, human impact,
plant growth
• Deposition can happen in:
1. bottomset beds: lower part of the delta. deposition of fine materials. created by
turbulence of water carrying loads
2. foreset beds: sloping and inclined layers above the bottomset. deposition of
coarse materials. material rolling and saltated.
3. topset beds: fine materials continuing the river’s floodplain. created by
distributaries (smaller channels from the river splitting up)
• 3 types of delta:
1. arcuate — fan shaped. smooth edges. bc regular longshore drift trimmed the
edge of deposition making it smooth. <nile and rhone>
2. cuspate — pointed like teeth or cusp. bc 2 gentle water movement in opposite
movement towards the deposition. <ebro and tiber>
3. bird’s foot — river brings down enormous amount of fine silt and its deposited
in still sea along edges of distributaries <Mississippi> 


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 THE HUMAN IMPACT

• Dams: a barrier constructed to hold back water and raise its level, the resulting
reservoir being used in the generation of electricity or as a water supply.
- increases evaporation because of the increase of water surface
- Salinisation: water table is close to the surface, evaporation takes up the water
and leaving the salt behind. this may create an impermeable crust
- increase storage of water
- decrease flood peaks
- low flows in river
- decrease sediment yields (clear water erosion)
- may trigger earthquakes
- solution to evaporation: chemical sprays on water, building sand fill dams,
covering dams with plastic
evidences:
- Lake Nasser behind Aswan Dam, Egypt — lose third of its water bc of
evaporation
- Indus Valley Pakistan — lose 0.4 million hectares land because of salinisation
Aswan High Dam

- disadvantages: 8. channel erosion on the channel bed —
1. water loss — provide less than half of lowering channel by 25mm
the water expected 9. erosion of nile delta — 2.5cm each year
2. salinisation — reduced crop yields up to is eroded
1/3 of the irrigated area bc the water is 10. loss of nutrients — costs $100 million to
saline replace with commercial fertilisers
3. ground water changes — seepage 11. decrease fish catches — sardine yield
increases groundwater level and result in decrease by 95%, 3000 fisheries jobs
secondary salinisation are loss
4. displacement of population — 100000 12. diseases — schistosomiasis (bilharzia)
Nubian people moved from ancestral
place - advantages:
5. Drowning archeological site — tomb of 13. flood and drought control: allow good
Ramases II have to be moves, weathering crops in dry years like in 1972 and 1973
of ancient monuments bc humid 14. irrigation — 60% of its water is used for
6. seismic stress — water level in the dam irrigating up to 4000km of desert
increases, increasing seismic activity and 15. hydro-electric power — 7000 million kW
causes earthquake on Nov 1981 hours each year
7. deposition within the lake 16. improved navigation
17. recreation and tourism


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• Urbanisation
- lack of vegetation: huge reduction in EVT and interception, increase stream
sedimentation because runoffs and erosion
- high temperature and increased surface storage: slight increase in EVT
- impermeable surface with compacted soil: reduces infiltration, increases runoff
and peak flow
- initial construction of houses, stress, culverts: decrease infiltration, lowering
ground water table, increase storm flows, decreasing base flows on dry periods
- complete development of residential, commercial and industrial areas: decrease
porosity, faster runoff flow, more runoff volume, flood damage potential

• Deforestation: • Afforestation:
- reduce ECT - may create an opposite effect of
- increase runoff deforestation
- decrease surface storage - but younger trees’s roots are too
- decrese time lag young to binds soil and hence
interception remain less — effectively
increase infiltration after several years
- young trees, access routes of tractors,
fire-wind breakers — a lot of bare soil


• Grazing = compaction of soil: decline in infiltration

• Ploughing = loosens soil: increase infiltration
• Poor drainage: Waterlogging (saturation of soil with water, ground water is really
high, no air available thats needed for crops) and Salinisation

• Groundwater abstraction: the process of taking water from the ground source,
temporarily or permanently
- over-abstraction: drying of rivers, falling water tables and salt water intrusion in
coastal area (salt water seeps into the aquifers of fresh water)
- salt water intrusion
- less abstraction because of less industrial activities: ground water level rise and
create leakage from old pipe and sewerage. results in:

1. increasing spring and river 4. pollution of surface water and
flows spread to underground
2. re-emergence of flows in dry 5. flooding of basements
springs 6. increase in tunnel leakages
3. surface water flooding 7. reduction in slope stability and
walls
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 8. less bearing capacity of 9. swelling of clays bc they
foundations and piles absorb water
10.chemical attack

Solutions
- Recharging ground water:
- Water-spreading: infiltration and seepage. used when aquifers are permeable
such as in alluvial fans, coastal sand dunes, glacial deposits.
- Pump water into deep pits or wells: when sediments have impermeable
layers hence water spreading cant work
evidences:
- Meditteranean coastlines of Italy, Spain and Turkey because of demands
from tourist resorts
- Malta: ground water can no longer be used for domestic consumption and
irrigation. they hence need to desalinate water
- Po river, Milan, Italy: overexploitation of Po river because of irrigation.
decreases water table to 25 metre
- High Plain of Texas: over abstraction to supply centre-pivot irrigation
schemes. water level decline by 30-50 metres and aquifers narrowed up tp
50%
- Coastal plain of Israel: Water pumping is heavily used to replenish
groundwater reservoirs when surplus irrigation water is available and to
diminish salt water intrusion from the meditteranean

• Grassland: infiltrate less than forest = big trees channel down water from their roots
and stem


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FLOOD RISK
• Flood: high flow of water that overtops the bank of a river
• Recurrence Intervals: the regularity of a flood of a given size
• Areas most vulnerable to flood:
1. low lying parts of active floodplains and river estuaries
2. small basins subject to flash floods
3. areas below unsafe dams
4. low lying inland shorelines
• Causes of floods:
1. Climatic Forces
- rain: india’s 70% of annual RF occurs in 3 months during summer monsoon.
- icemelt, snow melt: alpine and arctic
2. Part Climatological Forces: interaction between stream flow and tides (estuarine
condition), coastal storm surges
3. Natural Disasters: earthquake, landslides, dam failure
4. Flood Intensifying Conditions
- impermeable surfaces (urban growth)
- increase drainage channels
- flood plain development increases the risk of damage
- obstruction in channels like bridges and dams
- less vegetation cover (agricultures, deforestation)
- river engineering (leeves)
- human induced climate change
- Urbanisation: impermeable surfaces, drainage density and bridges constricting
river and reducing their carrying capacity
• Himalaya flooding in the lower ganges-brahmaputra: combination of high moonsoon
rains, steep slopes, and seismically unstable terrain, regardless vegetation are high
• Damages of Floods
- increase with an increase in velocity, loads carried in the stream (rocks, trees)
- deaths are higher in LICs, while economic costs are higher in HICs

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