RIVERS

DRAINAGE BASIN – an area within which water supplied by precipitation is transferred to the ocean or
lakes or large streams. It includes all the area drained by the river and its tributaries.

Processes that operate in a drainage basin

Hydrological cycle- is the movement of water between the atmosphere, lithosphere and the biosphere.
At global scale it is a closed system with no losses from the system. At local scales it is open with inputs
(precipitation)and outputs (runoff and evapotranspiration)

 Evaporation- is a process by which liquid or water on earth’s surface is changed to gas by the
effect of temperature and heat. Main sources are oceans and seas. Evaporation increases under
warm and dry conditions. It is also affected by sunlight intensity, humidity, water quality, depth
of water and vegetative cover.
 Evapotranspiration – transpiration it is the process by which water vapor is transferred from
vegetation to the atmosphere. Evapotranspiration is the combined effect of the two processes
 Condensation- when water has evaporated inform of vapor, it changes back to liquid due to cold
temperatures. When air is cooled at due point temperature condensation occurs. Condensation
produces water droplets. Clouds are masses of water droplets in the atmosphere, as more water
vapor accumulates in the clouds, clouds become heavy and saturated the precipitation occurs
 Precipitation- refers to any form of water that forms in the atmosphere andthen drops onto the
surface of the earth. It may be inform of rain, drizzle, ice crystals, snow, hail.

There are three types of rainfall, frontal, relief and convectional

 Interception – during precipitation water may be stored by the vegetation

There are three forms of interception
- Interception loss- water that is retained by the plant surfaces and later evaporated away or
absorbed by the plant
- Throughfall- water that either falls through gaps in the vegetation or drops from the leaves
- Stem flow – water that trickles along the branches and the stem of the trees
  Surface Run off/overland flow – when water has fallen on the ground it moves on the surface to
the water bodies. It occurs when precipitation exceeds the infiltration rate and when the soil is
saturated.
 Infiltration – process by which water soaks into the ground. Infiltration rate decreases with time
through a period of rainfall. Vegetation increases infiltration
 Groundwater is the subsurface water. Its upper layer is known as the water table. Aquifers are
rocks that contain significant quantities of water. They act as natural regulator in the
hydrological cycle by absorbing rainfall which would otherwise reach the streams rapidly thus
they maintain the stream flow during long dry periods
 Through flow – water that flows through the soil and natural pipes and between soil horizons.
 Ground water flow-underground horizontal movement of water back to water bodies.
 Soil moisture- is the subsurface water in the soil and the subsurface layers above the water table
This water may be;
- Absorbed
- Held
- Transmitted downwards towards the water table
- Transmitted upwards towards the soil surface and the atmosphere.

Characteristics of rivers

 Bed- the bottom of the river channel

 Bank – the sides of the river channels a river has two banks
 Width- the distance between the two banks of the river
 Depth- the distance from the water surface to the bed of a river
 Speed of flow- describes how fast the water in the river is moving, different speeds arise at
different parts of the river due to different angle of slopeness
 Wetted perimeter- length of the bed and banks in contact with the river
 Confluence is a point where a small river joins a large river.
 Tributary is a small river that joins a larger river.
 Source is the beginning or start point of a river.
 Mouth is the point where the river joins a lake or sea

Note;
Channel roughness – it causes friction which slows down the velocity of the water. Friction is
caused by irregularities in the river bed, boulders, vegetation and contact between the water
and the bed and bank. It decreases downstream.
Discharge- is the volume of water passing a given point over a set time.
BRADSHAW MODEL– Explains Channel changes in the upper and downstream- this is due to
river processes, there is more erosion in the upper part while more deposition in the lower
course.
RIVER PROCESSES
1. Erosional processes
 Abrasion- the wearing away of the bed and bank of the by river by its load
 Attrition – the wearing away of the load carried by a river which creates smaller particles
 Hydraulic action- which is the force of water on the cracks found in the bed and sides of the
river
 Solution- the removal of chemical ions especially calcium on rocks that contain such
minerals which causes the rocks to dissolve.

Factors that affect erosion

- speed of the flow of water in the river, the greater the speed the higher the rate of erosion.
- Slope of the river- the steeper the slope the higher therate of erosion
- Geology- soft rocks are easily eroded than hard rocks
- Human impact- deforestation, dams,

2. Transportation processes– rivers transport load through

- Suspension- small particles are held up by turbulent flow in the river
- Saltation – heavier particles are bounced or bumped along the bed of the river
- Solution – chemical load is dissolved in the water
- Traction- the heavier materials are dragged and rolled along the bed of the river
 3. Deposition processes – occurs when the river slows down and loses its energy

Usually occurs when the river floods across a flood plain or enters a sea, large boulders are deposited
first and small particles are deposited at the end

RIVER PROFILES - FEATURES CREATED BY THE RIVER PROCESSES

Long profile

The river is higher in upper course and lower downstream. A number of processes interact to create
variations in the cross and long profiles these include;

- Weathering
- Mass movement
- Geological structure
- Course load may lead steepening of the gradient of the main valley.

Cross section profiles

Upper part of the river is often described as V shaped, the middle is less steep and the lower part is
nearly flat.

Upper course
Features formed include;

Waterfalls- it occurs in the upper section of the river where water descends vertically. They are created
when there is a change in the rock type from hard rock to soft rock. As the water falls it causes
undercutting on the soft rock creating an overhang which will eventually become too heavy to be
supported and eventually collapses and the whole process restarts

Potholes-they are circular depressions found on river beds. hydraulic action and abrasion especially by
large debris may lead to formation of potholes. These are common in the upper course since the load is
larger and more rugged

Middle course

Features formed;

Meanders – this means that the river does not flow in a straight line but takes curving route which
causes variations in the speed of the river. Velocity is high on the outside of the banks and lowest in the
inside of the banks so there is erosion on the outer banks and deposition on the inner banks.
Lower course

Oxbow lakes – formed as a result of lateral erosion and deposition. The river erodes the outer banks
and deposits on the inner banks. This creates curved surfaces. In time the older meander is closed off by
deposition to form an oxbow lake.

Levees – When a river floods, it deposits some of its load on the banks. The features created are called
levees.
Floodplains- it is the area covered when river floods.

Deltas- a flat low lying deposit of sediments that may be found at a river’s mouth.

Conditions for the formation of a delta

- They form where a river carries large volume of sediments

- They also form when the river enters a still body of water
- Deposition is increased if the water is salty as it causes salt particles to group together
become heavier and be deposited.
- Vegetation also increases rate of deposition
- The sea must be shallow at the river mouth
OPPORTUNITIES PRESENTED BY RIVERS

 Irrigation
 HEP
 Tourism –They may create beautiful scenery
 Transport- rivers may also provide a cheap way of transportation
 Habitat for aquatic animals such as fish
 Source of water for domestic purposes or industrial use.

HAZARDS PRESENTED BY RIVERS

1. Floods –it is the temporary overflow of water onto land that is normally dry

Causes of floods

Physical

 Climatological factors – heavy rain increases the river discharge.

 Channels with steep sides
 Drainage basin consisting of mainly impermeable rock

Human

 Deforestation, overgrazing, over cultivation

 Broken of dam-
 Urbanization increase impermeable surfaces
Effects of floods

FLOOD MANAGEMENT
Hard engineering structures
 Dams- built across the river to control the amount of discharge,
 River engineering- channels are widened and deepened to carry more water, channels
are straightened so water travels faster, channels altered to divert water away from
home.
 Afforestation- to increase infiltration
 Forecasting and warning the occurrence of flooding and taking preparatory
measures such as evacuation
 Hazard resistant designs – constructing strong buildings that can withstand floods
 Land use zoning- it involves allowing compatible land uses with land that might
flood.
 Loss sharing and Insurance of life and property

2. RIVER EROSION – It is the wearing away of the bed and the banks of the river.
This results into;
- Reduction of agricultural land
- Destruction of pipelines, power lines and buildings
- Destruction of habitable land for animals
- Destruction of vegetation
 Case study for 2.2. opportunities presented by a river, associated hazards and their
management
HWANG HE RIVER
It is the second largest river in china and the sixth longest in the world. It runs for about 550km
across the north of china and it drains into Bo Hai Sea. Its catchment area is a home of about
10million people and it Is highly urbanized.
It is said to have killed more people than any other natural feature and for this reason it is called
‘river of sorrow’. The worst floods occurred in 1332 where 7million people drowned and 10
million people died and a series of floods also occurred that killed many people and caused
destructive of farm land and increased famine.
However, there are a lot of opportunities that the river offers.
- The river provides water that is used for production of electricity through HEP.
- It also provides good water transport systems.
- Its annual flooding deposits a lot of fertile soils which is good for agriculture
- It is a source of water for irrigation

The government has tried to manage impacts of the river through different flood control systems and
this includes creation of dykes and introduction of flood warning systems.