Virus There are a lot of different viruses in the world.

There are a lot of different viruses in the world. So, viruses vary a ton in their sizes, shapes, and life
cycles.
Key points:
Viruses do, however, have a few key features in common. These include:
 A virus is an infectious particle that reproduces by "commandeering" a host cell and using its
machinery to make more viruses.  A protective protein shell, or capsid

 A virus is made up of a DNA or RNA genome inside a protein shell called a capsid. Some  A nucleic acid genome made of DNA or RNA, tucked inside of the capsid
viruses have an internal or external membrane envelope.
 A layer of membrane called the envelope (some but not all viruses)
 Viruses are very diverse. They come in different shapes and structures, have different kinds of
genomes, and infect different hosts.

 Viruses reproduce by infecting their host cells and reprogramming them to become virus-
making "factories."

What is virus?

VIRUS – a tiny, infectious particle that can reproduce only by infecting a host cell. Viruses
"commandeer" the host cell and use its resources to make more viruses, basically reprogramming it to
become a virus factory. Because they can't reproduce by themselves (without a host), viruses are not Virus capsids
considered living. Nor do viruses have cells: they're very small, much smaller than the cells of living
things, and are basically just packages of nucleic acid and protein. The capsid, or protein shell, of a virus is made up of many protein molecules (not just one big, hollow
one). The proteins join to make units called capsomers, which together make up the capsid. Capsid
Still, viruses have some important features in common with cell-based life. For instance, they have proteins are always encoded by the virus genome, meaning that it’s the virus (not the host cell) that
nucleic acid genomes based on the same genetic code that's used in your cells (and the cells of all provides instructions for making them.
living creatures). Also, like cell-based life, viruses have genetic variation and can evolve. So, even
You can think of the capsid as a soccer ball, and the white hexagons and black pentagons as
though they don't meet the definition of life, viruses seem to be in a "questionable" zone.
capsomers.
How are viruses different from bacteria?
BACTERIA VS. VIRUS
Bacteria are small and single-celled, but they are living organisms that do not depend on a host cell to
reproduce. Because of these differences, bacterial and viral infections are treated very differently. For
instance, antibiotics are only helpful against bacteria, not viruses.
Bacteria are also much bigger than viruses. The diameter of a typical virus is about 20- 300 nanometers
(1 nm = 10-9m). This is considerably smaller than a typical E. coli bacterium, which has a diameter of
The capsids
roughly 1000 nm. Tens of millions of viruses could fit on the head of a pin.
of some viruses
What is the largest virus? are relatively simple and are made from multiple copies of a single protein. Canine parvovirus, a very
small virus that
At the moment, the largest known virus is called Pithovirus. It infects amoebas and is rod-shaped, with infects
a length of 1.5 µm and diameter of 0.5 µm. That's larger than some cells. dogs, has a
capsid
The structure of virus
made from 60
copies of the same capsid protein. The capsid is organized into 12 capsomers, each of which is made
from 5 capsid proteins. The capsids of other viruses are more complex and consist of multiple copies
of several different proteins.
All viruses have genetic material (a genome) made of nucleic acid. You, like all other cell-based life,
use DNA as your genetic material. Viruses, on the other hand, may use either RNA or DNA, both of
which are types of nucleic acid.
We often think of DNA as double-stranded and RNA as single-stranded, since that's typically the case
in our own cells. However, viruses can have all possible combos of strandedness and nucleic acid type
(double-stranded DNA, double-stranded RNA, single-stranded DNA, or single-stranded RNA). Viral
genomes also come in various shapes, sizes, and varieties, though they are generally much smaller than
the genomes of cellular organisms.
Notably, DNA and RNA viruses always use the same genetic code as living cells. If they didn't, they
would have no way to reprogram their host cells!

Capsids come in many forms, but they often take one of the following shapes (or a variation of these What is viral infection?
shapes):
At the microscopic scale, a viral infection means that many viruses are using your cells to make more
copies of themselves. The viral lifecycle is the set of steps in which a virus recognizes and enters a host
1. Icosahedral – Icosahedral capsids have twenty faces, and are named after the twenty-sided cell, "reprograms" the host by providing instructions in the form of viral DNA or RNA, and uses the
shape called an icosahedron. host's resources to make more virus particles (the output of the viral "program").
2. Filamentous – Filamentous capsids are named after their linear, thin, thread-like appearance.
They may also be called rod-shaped or helical. For a typical virus, the lifecycle can be divided into five broad steps (though the details of these steps
3. Head-tail –These capsids are kind of a hybrid between the filamentous and icosahedral will be different for each virus):
shapes. They basically consist of an icosahedral head attached to a filamentous tail.

Virus envelopes
In addition to the
capsid, some viruses
also have a lipid membrane known as an envelope. Virus envelopes can
be external, surrounding the entire capsid, or internal, found beneath the
capsid.

Viruses with envelopes do not provide instructions for the envelope

lipids. Instead, they "borrow" a patch from the host membranes on their
way out of the cell. Envelopes do, however, contain proteins that are specified by the virus, which
often help viral particles bind to host cells.

Although envelopes are common, especially among animal viruses, they are not found in every virus
(i.e., are not a universal virus feature).
Virus genomes
 a. Attachment. The virus recognizes and binds to a host cell via a Some viruses, like head-tail viruses, first assemble an “empty” capsid and then stuff the viral genome
receptor molecule on the cell surface. inside. Other viruses build the capsid around the viral genome.
In attachment, a specific protein on the capsid of the virus physically
"sticks" to a specific molecule on the membrane of the host cell.
This molecule, called a receptor, is usually a protein. A virus recognizes
its host cells based on the receptors they carry, and a cell without
receptors for a virus can't be infected by that virus.
b. Entry. The virus or its genetic material
enters the cell.
One typical route for viral entry is fusion with the
membrane, which is most common in viruses with
envelopes. Viruses may also trick the cell into taking
them in by a bulk transport process called endocytosis.
Some even inject their DNA into the cell!
e. Release. Completed viral particles exit the cell and can infect other cells.
c. Genome replication and gene
expression. The viral genome is The last step in the virus lifecycle is the release of newly made viruses from the host cell. Different
copied and its genes are expressed to make viral proteins. types of viruses exit the cell by different routes:
some make the host cell burst (a process called
This step involves copying the viral genome and making more viral proteins, so that new virus lysis), while others exit through the cell's own
particles can be assembled. export pathways (exocytosis), and others yet
bud from the plasma membrane, taking a patch
The materials for these processes (such as nucleotides to make new DNA or RNA) come from the host of it with them as they go.
cell, not the virus. Most of the "machinery" for replication
and gene expression is also provided by the host cell. For In some cases, the release of the new viruses
instance, the messenger RNAs (mRNAs) encoding viral kills the host cell. (For instance, a host cell that
genes are translated into viral proteins using the host cell's bursts will not survive.) In other cases, the
ribosomes. However, certain steps, such as the copying of exiting viruses leave the host cell intact so it can
an RNA virus's genome, cannot be performed by host cell continue cranking out more virus particles.
enzymes. In such cases, the viruses must encode their own
enzymes.
Bacteriophages
The viral proteins produced vary from virus to virus. All
viruses must encode capsid proteins, and enveloped viruses typically also encode envelope proteins Introduction
(which often aid in host recognition). Viruses may also encode proteins that manipulate the host Even bacteria can get a virus! The viruses that infect bacteria are called bacteriophages, and certain
genome (e.g., by blocking host defenses or driving expression of genes to benefit the virus), help with bacteriophages have been studied in detail in the lab (making them some of the viruses we understand
viral genome replication, or play a role in other parts of the viral lifecycle. best).
d. Assembly. New viral particles are assembled from the genome copies and viral In this articles, we'll take a look at two different cycles that bacteriophages may use to infect their
proteins. bacterial hosts:
During assembly, newly synthesized capsid proteins come together to form capsomers, which interact
with other capsomers to form the full-sized capsid.  The lytic cycle: The phage infects a bacterium, hijacks the bacterium to make lots of phages,
and then kills the cell by making it explode (lyse).
  The lysogenic cycle: The phage infects a bacterium and inserts its DNA into the bacterial
chromosome, allowing the phage DNA (now called a prophage) to be copied and passed on
along with the cell's own DNA.
Bacteriophages is a virus that infects bacteria
A bacteriophage, or phage for short, is a virus that infects bacteria. Like other types of viruses,
bacteriophages vary a lot in their shape and genetic material.
 Phage genomes can
consist of either DNA or RNA, and can contain as few as four genes or as many as several
hundred.
 The capsid of a bacteriophage can be icosahedral, filamentous, or head-tail in shape. The
head-tail structure seems to be unique to phages and their close relatives (and is not found in
eukaryotic viruses).
Bacteriophage infections
Bacteriophages, just like other viruses, must infect a host cell in order to reproduce. The steps that
make up the infection process are collectively called the lifecycle of the phage.
Some phages can only reproduce via a lytic lifecycle, in which they burst and kill their host cells.
Other phages can alternate between a lytic lifecycle and a lysogenic lifecycle, in which they don't kill
the host cell (and are instead copied along with the host DNA each time the cell divides).
Let's take closer look at these two cycles. As an example, we'll use a phage called lambda (λ), which
infects E. coli bacteria and can switch between the lytic and lysogenic cycles.
Lytic cycle
In the lytic cycle, a phage acts like a typical virus: it hijacks its host cell and uses the cell's resources to
make lots of new phages, causing the cell to lyse (burst) and die in the process.
The stages of the lytic cycle are:
a. Attachment: Proteins in the "tail" of the phage bind to a specific receptor (in this case, a
sugar transporter) on the surface of the bacterial cell.
b. Entry: The phage injects its double-stranded DNA genome into the cytoplasm of the
bacterium.
c. DNA copying and protein synthesis: Phage DNA is copied, and phage genes are expressed
to make proteins, such as capsid proteins.
 d. Assembly of new phage: Capsids assemble from the capsid proteins and are stuffed with
DNA to make lots of new phage particles.
e. Lysis: Late in the lytic cycle, the phage expresses genes for proteins that poke holes in the
plasma membrane and cell wall. The holes let water flow in, making the cell expand and burst
like an overfilled water balloon.
Cell bursting, or lysis, releases hundreds of new phages, which can find and infect other host cells
nearby. In this way, a few cycles of lytic infection can let the phage spread like wildfire through a
bacterial population.
Lysogenic cycle
The lysogenic cycle allows a phage to reproduce without killing its host. Some phages can only use the
lytic cycle, but the phage we are following, lambda (λ), can switch between the two cycles.
Most phages are
either purely lytic
(sometimes called virulent phages) or capable of switching between the lytic and lysogenic cycles
(sometimes called temperate phages).
However, when it comes to virology, there is an exception to almost every rule, and this is true for
phage lifecycles. Filamentous (long, rod-shaped) phages are secreted from the cell in a process that
does not lyse or kill the cell (even though the cell is actively producing new phage particles). This is a
"lytic-like" lifecycle that does not actually involve lysis.
In the lysogenic cycle, the first two steps (attachment and DNA injection) occur just as they do for the
lytic cycle. However, once the phage DNA is inside the cell, it is not immediately copied or expressed
to make proteins. Instead, it recombines with a particular region of the bacterial chromosome. This
causes the phage DNA to be integrated into the chromosome.
Not all phages integrate their DNA into the genome of their host during the lysogenic cycle. Some
instead keep their genome in the cell as a separate, circular piece of DNA.
This is still considered a lysogenic cycle because the phage does not drive production of new virus
particles or kill the cell. Instead, it remains "silent" and is passively copied along with the cell's DNA.
The integrated phage DNA, called a prophage, is not active: its genes aren't expressed, and it doesn't
drive production of new phages. However, each time a host cell divides, the prophage is copied along
with the host DNA, getting a free ride. The lysogenic cycle is less flashy (and less gory) than the lytic
cycle, but at the end of the day, it's just another way for the phage to reproduce.
Under the right conditions, the prophage can become active and come back out of the bacterial
chromosome, triggering the remaining steps of the lytic cycle (DNA copying and protein synthesis,
phage assembly, and lysis).
To lyse or not to lyse?
How does a phage "decide" whether to enter the lytic or lysogenic cycle when it infects a bacterium?
One important factor is the number of phages infecting the cell at once. Larger numbers of co-infecting
phages make it more likely that the infection will use the lysogenic cycle. This strategy may help
prevent the phages from wiping out their bacterial hosts (by toning down the attack if the phage-to-host
ratio gets too high).
When there are multiple phages infecting a single bacterium, that suggests (statistically speaking) that
the phages may be in danger of wiping out their bacterial hosts.
Phages that flip to the lysogenic mode in response to a high multiplicity of infection may be less likely
to run out of hosts and "die out" as a population (because they can strategically stop killing hosts once
their own numbers get too high). Notably, once a cell has a prophage in its genome, it is immune to
being infected by another phage of the same type.
Thus, the genetically encoded tendency to flip to lysogeny at at high multiplicity might have been
favored by natural selection (explaining why phages have it today).
What triggers a prophage to pop back out of the chromosome and enter the lytic cycle? At least in the
laboratory, DNA-damaging agents (like UV radiation and chemicals) will trigger most prophages in a
population to re-activate. However, a small fraction of the prophages in a population spontaneously virus, chikungunya, is shown below for comparison: chikungunya looks like a sphere, but is actually a
"go lytic" even without these external cues. 20-sided icosahedron.
Bacteriophages vs. Antibiotics
Before antibiotics were discovered, there was considerable research on bacteriophages as a treatment
for human bacterial diseases. Bacteriophages attack only their host bacteria, not human cells, so they
are potentially good candidates to treat bacterial diseases in humans.

After antibiotics were discovered, the phage approach was largely abandoned in many parts of the
world (particularly English-speaking countries). However, phages continued to be used for medical
purposes in a number of countries, including Russia, Georgia, and Poland, where they remain in use.

There is increasing interest in bringing back the "phage approach" elsewhere, as antibiotic-resistant
bacteria become more and more of a problem. Research is still needed to see how safe and effective
Animal virus
phages are, but who knows? One day, your doctor might write you a prescription for phages instead of
genomes consist of either RNA or DNA, which may be single-stranded or double-stranded. Animal
penicillin!
viruses may use a range of strategies (including some surprising and bizarre ones) to copy and use their
genetic material, as we'll see in sections below.
Animal and human viruses
How do animal viruses infect cells?
Key points: Animal viruses, like other viruses, depend on host cells to complete their life cycle. In order to
reproduce, a virus must infect a host cell and reprogram it to make more virus particles.
 There are many different kinds of viruses that infect humans and other animals, some causing
serious illness and others not.
The first key step in infection is recognition: an animal virus has special surface molecules that let it
 Viruses can be classified according to the Baltimore system, and human-infecting viruses fall
bind to receptors on the host cell membrane. Once attached to a host cell, animal viruses may enter in a
into all of its seven categories.
variety of ways: by endocytosis, where the membrane folds in; by making channels in the host
 The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes acquired immune deficiency
membrane (through which DNA or RNA can be injected); or, for enveloped viruses, by fusing with the
syndrome (AIDS), is a retrovirus. membrane and releasing the capsid inside of the cell.

Introduction
Human viruses come in many types and have a wide range of effects. Some make us sick for a day or
two before going away, while others are lifelong. Some are a minor annoyance, while others, such as
Ebola, can cause life-threatening complications.
After the virus uses the host cell's resources to make new viral proteins and genetic material, viral
particles assemble and prepare to exit the cell. Enveloped animal viruses may bud from the cell
membrane as they form, taking a piece of the plasma membrane or internal membranes in the process.
In contrast, non-enveloped virus particles, such as rhinoviruses, typically build up in infected cells until
the cell bursts and/or dies and the particles are released.

Because of their impact on our health and quality of life, many human viruses (and related animal Consequences of an infection
viruses) have been studied in detail. Let's take a look at some of these viruses.
Viruses are associated with a variety of human diseases. The diagram below shows some common
examples of viral infections that affect different systems of the human body:
What does animal virus look-like?
Like other viruses, animal viruses are tiny packages of protein and nucleic acid. They have a protein
shell, or capsid, and genetic material made of DNA or RNA that's tucked inside the caspid. They may
also feature an envelope, a sphere of membrane made of lipid.

Animal virus capsids come in many shapes. One of the craziest-looking (to me, at least) is the Ebola
virus, which has a long, thread-like structure that loops back on itself. A more "standard-looking"

Some
viral infections follow the classic pattern of acute disease: symptoms worsen for a short period, but in
most cases, the virus is cleared from the body by the immune system and the patient recovers.
Examples include the common cold and influenza.
Other viruses, such as the hepatitis C virus, cause long-term chronic infections. Still other viruses,
such as human herpesviruses 6 and 7, which in some cases cause the minor childhood disease roseola,
may form productive infections (ones where new viral particles are produced) without causing any
symptoms at all in the host. In these cases, patients are said to have an asymptomatic infection.
Classifying animal viruses
Animal viruses come in many types, and they enter, commandeer, and exit cells in a variety of
different ways. How can we organize this mess of viruses in a way that's consistent and makes sense?
The Baltimore system groups viruses according to their type of genetic material and how it's used to
make messenger RNAs (mRNAs), key intermediates in the production of viral proteins and the
assembly of new viruses. A virus's Baltimore group depends on:
 The molecule it uses as genetic material (DNA or RNA)
 Whether the genetic material is single- or double-stranded
 The steps the virus uses to make an mRNA
The Baltimore system divides viruses into seven groups. You can see the basic features of each group,
including its genetic material and the pathway it uses to make an mRNA, in the diagram below:
The + and - signs indicate the sense of the RNA genome.
If a virus genome is made of single-stranded RNA, it can be either positive (+) or negative (-) sense:
 A (+) sense RNA genome is like an mRNA: it has a sequence that could be directly translated
to make proteins.
 A (-) sense RNA genome can't be directly used for translation. Instead, it is the reverse
complement (backwards version) of the sequence that encodes the viral proteins.
A (-) sense RNA genome has to be made into a complementary (+) sense RNA strand, which can then
be translated to make proteins.
Human viruses are found in all seven Baltimore groups, while plant and bacterial viruses are found
only in a subset of groups. If we want to develop a drug to target a virus, it's important for us to know
the details of its life cycle—including its Baltimore group and other aspects of its biology—in order to
block that cycle effectively.
Baltimore classification The diagram below shows the key life cycle stages of the HIV-1 virus, the strain responsible for most
cases of HIV infection.
Group Characteristics Mode of mRNA production Example
mRNA is transcribed directly from Herpes simplex
I Double-stranded DNA
the DNA template (herpesvirus)
DNA is converted to double-
Canine parvovirus
II Single-stranded DNA stranded form before RNA is
(parvovirus)
transcribed
Childhood
mRNA is transcribed from the
III Double-stranded RNA gastroenteritis
RNA genome
(rotavirus)
Single stranded RNA Common cold
IV Genome functions as mRNA
(+) (pircornavirus)
Single stranded RNA mRNA is transcribed from the
V Rabies (rhabdovirus)
(-) RNA genome

Reverse transcriptase makes DNA

Single stranded RNA from the RNA genome; DNA is Human
VI viruses with reverse incorporated into the host genome; immunodeficiency virus
transcriptase mRNA is transcribed from the (HIV)
incorporated DNA

The viral genome is double-

stranded DNA, but viral DNA is
Double stranded DNA
replicated through an RNA Hepatitis B virus
VII viruses with reverse
intermediate; the RNA may serve (hepadnavirus)
transcriptase
directly as mRNA or as a template Anti-HIV drugs inhibit viral
to make mRNA replication at many different phases of the HIV
cycle. These drugs include:

Retroviruses, found in Baltimore group VI, have a unique and fascinating life cycle. They are of  Fusion inhibitors, which block fusion of the HIV viral envelope with the plasma membrane of
special importance because human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the virus that causes acquired the host cell
immune deficiency syndrome, or AIDS, is a retrovirus.  Reverse transcriptase inhibitors, which impair the conversion of the RNA genome into
double-stranded DNA
A retrovirus genome is single-stranded RNA and comes in two copies per viral particle. The RNA  Integrase inhibitors, which inhibit the integration of the viral DNA into the host genome
must be converted into double-stranded DNA by an enzyme called reverse transcriptase, reversing  Protease inhibitors, which block processing of viral proteins
the normal flow of information from DNA to RNA to protein in cells.
"Cocktails" containing multiple drugs are usually most effective at slowing the progression of the
The double-stranded DNA enters the nucleus of the host cell and is inserted into the host genome by an
infection and keeping viral levels low. You can learn why this is the case in the virus evolution article.
enzyme called integrase. mRNA can then be made by transcription of the viral DNA, which, as a
permanent part of the host cell's genome, is called a provirus. The mRNA is read to produce viral
For more on symptoms, treatment, and prevention of HIV and AIDS, please see the Health & Medicine
proteins and may also serve as a genome for new viral particles that assemble and bud from the cell.
section on HIV and AIDS.
Evolution of viruses
You can learn more about DNA and RNA in the section on nucleic acids.
Key points:
 Random mutation: a change occurs in the DNA or RNA sequence of a virus.
 Viruses undergo evolution and natural selection, just like cell-based life, and most of them
evolve rapidly. We can see variation and evolution of viruses all around us if we know where to look—for instance, in
 When two viruses infect a cell at the same time, they may swap genetic material to make new, the new flu strains that appear each year.
"mixed" viruses with unique properties. For example, flu strains can arise this way.
Mixing it up: Recombination
 RNA viruses have high mutation rates that allow especially fast evolution. An example is the
evolution of drug resistance in HIV. Before we looks specifically at the flu, let's examine how viruses swap DNA and RNA in a process
called recombination.
Introduction
Recombination usually happens when two viruses have infected the same cell at the same time. Since
Have you ever wondered why a different strain of flu virus comes around every year? Or how HIV, the both viruses are using the cell to crank out more virus particles, there will be lots of virus parts –
virus that causes AIDS, can become drug-resistant? including newly made genomes – floating around in the cell at once.

The short answer to these questions is that viruses evolve. That is, the "gene pool" of a virus population
can change over time. In some cases, the viruses in a population—such as all the flu viruses in a
geographical region, or all the different HIV particles in a patient's body—may evolve by natural
selection. Heritable traits that help a virus reproduce (such as high infectivity for influenza, or drug
resistance for HIV) will tend to get more and more common in the virus population over time.

Viruses undergo evolution (by natural selection and other mechanisms) just as cell-based organisms
do. Visit the evolution topic to learn more about evolution and natural selection.

Not only do viruses evolve, but they also tend to evolve faster than their hosts, such as humans. That
makes virus evolution an important topic—not just for biologists who study viruses, but also for
doctors, nurses, and public health workers, as well as anyone who might be exposed to a virus.
Variation in viruses
Natural selection can only happen when it has the right starting material: genetic variation. Genetic
variation means there are some genetic (heritable) differences in a population. In viruses, variation
comes from two main sources:

 Recombination: viruses swap chunks of genetic material (DNA or RNA).

DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid, and RNA stands for ribonucleic acid.

DNA and RNA both belong to a class of molecules called nucleic acids, which are long chains of
molecular "letters" linked together.

DNA is the genetic material for humans and all other life forms made of cells. Viruses can have either
DNA or RNA as their genetic material. "Genetic material" means a molecule that carries the blueprint
or instructions for an organism, and that is passed from parent to child.

Under these circumstances, recombination can happen in two different ways. First, similar regions of
viral genomes can pair up and exchange pieces, physically breaking and re-connecting the DNA or
RNA. Second, viruses with different segments (kind of like tiny chromosomes) can swap some of
those segments, a process called reassortment.
Recombination and influenza (“the flu”)
Influenza ("flu") viruses are masters of reassortment. They have eight RNA segments, each carrying
one or a few genes.
When two influenza viruses infect the same cell at the same time, some of the new viruses made inside
of the cell may have a mix of segments (e.g., segments 1-4 from strain A and segments 5-8 from strain
B).
and bird influenza viruses (as well as pig viruses). If a cell in the pig is infected with two types of virus
at the same time, it may release new viruses may be made that contain a mixture of genetic material
from the human and bird viruses.
This kind of swap is common for influenza viruses in nature. For example, remember the H1N1
influenza strain ("swine flu") that caused a pandemic in 2009? H1N1 had RNA segment from human
and bird viruses, as well as pig viruses from both North America and Asia. This combo reflects a series
of reassortments that occurred step by step over many years to produce this H1N1 strain.
Viral mutations
We've seen how recombination can affect virus evolution, but what about mutation? A mutation is a
permanent change in the genetic material (DNA or RNA) of a virus. A mutation can happen if there is
a mistake during copying of the DNA or RNA of the virus.

Some viruses have very high mutation rates, but this is not universally the case. In general, RNA
viruses tend to have high mutation rates, while DNA viruses tend to have low mutation rates.

Why is this the case? The key difference lies in the copying machinery. Most DNA viruses copy their
genetic material using enzymes from the host cell, called DNA polymerases, which “proofread" (catch
and fix mistakes as they go). RNA viruses instead use enzymes called RNA polymerases, which don't
proofread and thus make many more mistakes.

Case study: HIV drug resistance

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the virus that causes acquired immune deficiency
syndrome (AIDS). HIV is an RNA virus with a high mutation rate and evolves rapidly, leading to the
emergence of drug-resistant strains.

HIV's high mutation rate

Because RNA viruses like HIV have a high mutation rate, there will be lots of genetic variation in the
population of HIV viruses in a patient's body. Many of the mutations will be harmful, and the mutant
viruses will simply "die" (fail to reproduce).
However, some mutations help viruses
reproduce under specific conditions. For
instance, a mutation may provide resistance to a
drug.

Evolution of drug resistance in HIV

Pigs in particular Certain drugs can block the replication of HIV

are well- known by inhibiting key viral enzymes. Taking one of
"mixing vessels" for influenza viruses. Pig cells can be recognized, and thus infected, by both human these drugs will at first reduce a patient's viral
levels. After awhile, however, the HIV viruses typically "bounce back" and return to high levels, even instance, the HIV virus goes through its lifecycle in just 52 hours, as compared to roughly 20 years for
though the drug is still present. In other words, a drug-resistant form of the virus emerges. the human lifecycle!

To see why this took place, let's use the example of a specific type of antiviral drug, a reverse What tools do we have to combat fast-evolving viruses? Taking steps to prevent transmission,
transcriptase inhibitor. Reverse transcriptase inhibitors, like the nevirapine molecule shown in the identifying new drugs for treatment, and developing and using vaccines are all important strategies.
diagram below, bind to a viral enzyme called reverse transcriptase (the red-and-brown structure). The
drug keeps the enzyme from doing its job of copying the RNA genome of HIV into DNA. If this
LECTURE:
enzyme is inactive, an HIV virus can't permanently infect a cell.

Most HIV viruses are stopped by nevirapine. However, a very small fraction of the viruses in the HIV Viruses are classified as DNA and RNA:
population will (by random chance) have a mutation in the gene for reverse transcriptase that makes  DNA viruses
them resistant to the drug. For instance, they might have a genetic change that alters the drug's binding o Parvoviridae (smallest)
site on the enzyme, so that the drug is no longer able to latch on and inhibit enzyme activity.
Common Name: Parvovirus B19, Canine parvovirus
The viruses with this resistance mutation will reproduce despite the presence of the drug and, over Virion: Naked
generations, can re-establish the viral levels present before the drug was administered. Not only that, Capsid symmetry: Icosaherdral
but the entire virus population will now be resistant to the drug! Group: II
Size: Dependoparvovirus – 22 nm
HAART drug resistance Canine Parvovirus: Dogs and cats
Parvovirus B19: Humans
If HIV can evolve its way around a drug, how can the virus be stopped? What seems to work best is a
combination approach, with three or more drugs taken at the same time. This approach to treatment is  Vomiting
called highly active antiretroviral therapy, or HAART for short. The drugs given in a HAART  Weakness
"cocktail" typically target different parts of the HIV lifecycle.  Watery or soft faeces (black-streak with blood)

The HAART approach works because it's relatively unlikely that any one HIV virus in a population o Papovaviridae
will happen to have three mutations that give resistance to all three drugs at the same time. Although
multi-drug-resistant forms of the virus do eventually evolve, multi-drug combinations considerably Common Name: Papillomavirus, Polyomaviridae, Papovavirus
slow the evolution of resistance. Virion: Naked
Capsid symmetry: Icosahedral
To learn more about the biology of HIV, please see the article on virus lifecycles. To learn more about Group: I
symptoms, treatment, and prevention of HIV and AIDS, please see the Health & Medicine section on Size: Polyomavirus – 40 nm, Papillomavirus – 50 nm
HIV and AIDS. Papillomavirus: Warts
Polyomavirus: Budgerigar Fledgling Disease
Why do viruses evolve so fast? Lidocaine: also known as xylocaine and lignocaine, a medication used to numb tissue in a specific
area (Transdermal anaesthesia).
Viruses evolve faster than humans. Why is this the case? Genital: Cervical cancer
o Adenoviridae
As we saw in the case of HIV, some viruses have a high mutation rate, which helps them evolve
quickly by providing more variation as starting material. Two other factors that contribute to the fast Common Name: Bat adenobirus TJM, Adenovirus
evolution of viruses are large population size and rapid lifecycle. Virion: Naked
Capsid symmetry: Icosahedral
The bigger the population, the higher the odds that it'll have a virus with a particular random mutation Group: I
(e.g., one for drug resistance or high infectivity) on which natural selection can act. Also, viruses Size: 80 nm
reproduce quickly, so their populations evolve on shorter timescales than those of their hosts. For Bat adenovirus TJM (Bt-AdV—TJM): Bats
Adenovirus: Humans
  Viral meningitis Group: single-stranded positive-sense
 Tonsillitis Size: 120 nm
 Encephalitis Sequence: RNA → DNA → RNA → polypeptide
One genome peptide: DNA → RNA → peptide
o Poxviridae Envelope: Lipid bilayer
CD4 and CD8: marker that can be found in T-cells
Common Name: Poxvirus, Orthopox, Parapox, Yatapox, Molluscipox
Virion: Complex coats o Picornaviridae
Capsid symmetry: Complex
Common Name: Enterovirus, Rhinovirus, Hepatovirus, Poliovirus, Coxsackie
Group: I
Virion: Naked
Size: 250 nm
Capsid symmetry: Icosahedral
Poxvirus: Human, vertebrates and anthropods
Group: IV
Orthopox: Smallpox virus (variola), cowpox virus, vaccinia virus
Size: 27 nm
Parapox: Orf virus, Pseudocowpox, Bovine papular stomatitis virus
Picornavirus: Humans and vertebrates
Yatapox: Tanapox, Yaba monkey tumor virus
Molluscipox: Molluscum contagiosum virus o Caliciviridae
o Herpesviridae Common Name: Feline calicivirus, Norwalk virus
Virion: Naked
Common Name: Herpes simplex virus, Varicella-zoster virus, Epstein-Barr virus
Capsid symmetry: Icosahedral
Virion: Enveloped
Group: IV
Capsid symmetry: Icosahedral
Size: 30 nm
Group: I
Feline calicivirus: Cats
Size: 150 nm
Herpes simplex virus: Orolabial herpes, Genital herpes o Reoviridae
Varicella-zoster virus: Chickenpox, Shingles
Epstein-Barr virus: Mononucleosis, Cancers Common Name: Reovirus, Rotavirus
Virion: Naked
o Hepadnaviridae Capsid symmetry: Icosahedral
Group: III
Common Name: Hepadnavirus, Hepatitis B virus
Size: 60 nm
Virion: Enveloped
Reovirus: Humans
Capsid symmetry: Icosahedral
Group: VII  Mild or subclinical
Size: 42 nm
Hepadnavirus: Humans, apes and birds Rotavirus: Children
Hepatitis B virus: Humans
 Diarrhea
 Liver infections (hepatitis or hepatocellular carcinomas)
 Cirrhosis o Togaviridae

 RNA viruses Common Name: Rubella virus, Alphavirus

Virion: Enveloped
Capsid symmetry: Icosahedral
o Retroviridae
Group: IV
Common Name: Retrovirus, HIV Size: 70 nm
Virion: Enveloped Togavirus: Human, mammals, birds and mosquitoes
Capsid symmetry: Spherical -Pleomorphic
 o Coronaviridae

Common Name: Corona virus, SARS

Virion: Enveloped
Capsid symmetry: Helical
Group: IV
Size: 9 nm
Corona virus: Humans
o Orthomyxoviridae (straight mucus)

Common Name: Influenza virus A, B, C, Isavirus, Thogotovirus

Virion: Enveloped
Capsid symmetry: Helical
Group: V
Size: 100 nm
Influenza virus: Humans, pigs, cattle
o Paramyxoviridae

Common Name: Measles virus, Mumps virus, Respiratory syncytial virus

Virion: Envelpoed
Capsid symmetry: Helical
Group: V
Size: 150 nm
Paramyxovirus: Infants and children
o Rhabdoviridae

Common Name: Rabies virus

Virion: Enveloped
Capsid symmetry: Helical (bullet shaped)
Group: V
Size: 180 nm
Rabies virus: Humans, Mammals, invertabrate and plants

o Flaviviridae

Common name: Dengue virus, Hepatitis C virus, Yellow fever virus

Virion: Enveloped
Capsid symmetry: Icosahedral
Group: IV
Size: 65 nm
Flavivirus: Humans