EC510 Water and Wastewater

Engineering

Drinking water quality

Lecturer: Dr. Stephen Siwila

Department of Civil and Construction Engineering,
The Copperbelt University, School of Engineering.

1
 What is water Quality

✓ Water quality is the measure of the suitability of water for

a particular use based on physical, chemical and
biological characteristics.

✓ To determine water quality, we first need to measure and

analyze characteristics of the water in question such as
Temp, dissolved mineral content, and number of bacteria.

✓ Selected characteristics are then compared to numeric

standards and guidelines to decide if the water is suitable
for a particular use.

2
 Why study drinking water quality

o To determine the quality of raw water.

o To determine design steps for drinking water

treatment processes.

o To assess treatment efficiency of water

treatment units.

o To assess presence of toxic components in water

such as cyanide, cadmium, mercury, etc.
3
Why study water quality (cont.)

4
Aspects of Drinking Water Quality

There are four main aspects of drinking water

quality (WHO, 2017):

1. Microbiological Aspects.

2. Chemical Aspects.

3. Acceptability Aspects.

4. Radiological Aspects.

5
 Microbiological Aspects: Pathogens
Smallest
Virus Virus (0.03 to 0.2 micron)
Bacteria
Protozoa Bacteria (0.2 to 10 microns)
Helminth
Protozoa
Largest (2 to 50 microns)

Helminth
(40 to 100 microns)

6
Pathogens

❖ Also called microbiological

contaminants or microbes, pathogens
are disease causing microorganisms
(they are organisms capable of infecting
or transmitting diseases to humans or
animals).

❖ Water for drinking and cooking

purposes must be made free from
pathogens.
✓ The priority of most WT systems is
to remove waterborne pathogens 7
(viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and
helminths (worms).
 Viruses
• Viruses – are unable to reproduce by themselves;
➢ they invade other living hosts/cells to reproduce.

• Diseases caused by viruses that can be found in water

(=water-borne) include:
➢ Hepatitis A, Hepatitis E, and polio.

• Mosquito-borne examples:
➢ Dengue fever, Japanese encephalitis, West Nile fever.

• Effective disinfection of viruses is difficult due to the tiny

size and lack of quick and conclusive test.
➢ This is the major concern wrt. recycling of WW.

▪ Note: Just One virus can cause illness & Viruses are Hard
to detect 8
 Bacteria

➢ Bacteria are tiny, single-celled organisms.

➢ Found almost everywhere on earth.
➢ Very common in feces. 1 gram = billions of bacteria.
➢ Examples of waterborne bacterial diseases include:
1) Cholera (caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.)
2) Typhoid fever (caused by Salmonella Typhi)
3) Bacillary dysentery (shigellosis) is caused by
bacteria of the genus Shigella.
➢ Cholera outbreaks are a major public health concern
in developing countries like Zambia. 9
 Protozoa
❖ Protozoa are a diverse group of single-celled organisms.
❖ Some need a host to survive. Others form cysts that are
resistant to chlorine and help them survive without a host.
❖ Examples of waterborne protozoal diseases include:
▪ Amoebic dysentery (caused by the microscopic
parasite Entamoeba histolytica).
▪ Cryptosporidiosis is an acute self-limiting diarrhoeal
disease caused by the protozoan parasite
Cryptosporidium.
▪ Giardiasis is also a diarrhoeal disease and is caused by
the protozoan parasite, Giardia duodenalis.
❖ Mosquito-borne example (breed in standing water): 10

Malaria.
 Helminths

▪ Helminths are worms. They often need a host to

survive. They weaken people by using their food.
▪ Most are passed through feces.
▪ Common types of helminths that cause illness are:
➢ round worms, pin worms, and hook worms.
▪ Schistosomiasis (bilharzia), is a disease caused by
the trematode flatworm.
▪ Dracunculiasis is a disease caused by Dracunculus
medinensis (guinea worm), a type of round worms.
11
 Indicator organisms

▪ Testing for every possible pathogen in water would

be: time-consuming, complicated, and expensive.
▪ Often we test for indicator organisms as a way of
assessing the microbiological safety of drinking water.
▪ Indicator organisms are organisms whose presence
in water indicates the presence of fecal contamination
➢ and potentially pathogens.
▪ Escherichia coli (E.coli) and fecal coliforms are
often used as indicator organisms for fecal pathogens.
➢ When these microorganisms are present in water,
sewage/fecal contamination has likely occurred.
12
Characteristics of a good pathogen indicator include:

▪ Be applicable to all types of water.

▪ Always present when pathogens are present.
▪ Absent when pathogens are absent.
▪ Be non-pathogenic for safety of lab Personnel.
▪ Respond to treatment similar to fecal pathogens.
▪ Should not multiply in the environment.
▪ Be easier, cheaper and faster to test for.
13
 Common Indicator Bacteria

Coliforms are bacteria that exist in soil, plants and in the

intestines of animals and birds. 14
Bacteriological Test Methods.
(1) Membrane Filtration (MF) Technique.
It is a direct count of coliform bacteria.
Procedure:
a) A 100 mL water sample is filtered through a sterile membrane
filter with a pore size of 0.45 μm.
b) The membrane filter is placed onto selective culture media,
which only allows specific bacteria to grow.
c) The membrane filter and media are incubated at 35˚C for 24-
48 hrs
d) Colonies appearing on the filter are then counted.
e) The results are reported as colony forming units per 100 mL of
water sample (CFU/100 mL).

15
(1)Membrane Filtration (MF) Technique

16
Bacteriological Test Methods.
(2) Multiple tube fermentation technique (MPN tech.)
➢ Coliforms are known to ferment lactose with one of the end
products being a gas.
➢ Lauryl sulfate-tryptose (LT) lactose broth which inhibits non-
coliform organisms is placed in a set of test tubes which are
then inoculated using different dilutions of the water to be
tested (10ml, 1ml, 0.1ml).
➢ These tubes are incubated at 35°C for 24 to 48 hours and
inspected for gas production.
➢ The number of coliforms present is then determined
statistically using MPN tables based on the number of tubes
that were tested positive for gas or fermentation of lactose.

17
(2) MPN technique
The test is conducted in three stages:
a) Presumptive test - incubate in lactose broth at 35°C and
check for production of gas.
✓ If gas is formed then coliforms are present and the water
is not safe.
b) Confirmed test – incubate small amount of culture from
the positive tubes in brilliant green bile broth and check for
gas.
✓ If gas is formed then the water contains fecal coliforms.
c) Completed test-incubate from confirmed test and check
gram stain using eosin-methylene blue agar (EMBA).
✓ If the gram stains are seen then the water contains E.coli.
18
Fig: The capture of gas in a tube where lactose is fermented by coliform.
Source: Intro. to Env. Engineering SI (Vesilind, Morgan, Heine) 19
MPN TECHNIQUE (Presumptive Test)

DSLB double strength lauryl sulfate broth, SSLB single strength lauryl sulfate broth.

20
MPN TECHNIQUE (THE MAJOR STEPS)

21
MPN TABLE FOR VARIOUS COMBINATAIONS OF +VE RESULTS IN
FERMENTATION TEST TUBES

22
Example:
❖ The results of a multiple-tube fermentation test on a sample of river
water are as given below.
❖ Determine the MPN of coliforms based on these results.

Dilution series Results after

incubation
10 mL 2 positive,
1 negative
1 mL 1 positive,
2 negative
0.1 mL 0 positive,
3 negative 23
Solution
▪ Entering the MPN Table, locate the row with 2, 1, and 0 in
the first three columns, respectively.
▪ These numbers represent the number of positive tubes in
each dilution series.
▪ Under the MPN index column, read an MPN of 15 coliforms
per 100 ml.
▪ The last two columns of the table point out the statistical
nature of the MPN.
▪ The probability is 95 percent that the actual coliform
concentration is at least 3, but no more than 44, per 100 ml.

24
MPN TECHNIQUE_step3 (Streak Plate)

25
Chemical aspects

❖ Chemical aspects include all dissolved constituents

in water such as:
➢ Humic (organic) substances, heavy metals,
detergents, pesticides, etc.

❖ Chemical aspects of water are sometimes evidenced

by their observed reactions, such as the comparative
performance of hard and soft waters in laundering.

❖ Most often, differences in chemical quality are not

visible.

❖ In some cases, such as the oxidation of iron, the

reactions result in objectionable colour and taste.
26
Chemical aspects

❖ The chemical analysis of a domestic water supply

should ordinarily include the determination of:
✓ water hardness,
✓ alkalinity,
✓ pH,
✓ conductivity, and the presence of:
• chloride,
• sulfate, and,
• nitrate.

27
Chemical aspects
❖ Other chemicals of importance in drinking water are:
✓ iron,
✓ manganese,
✓ fluoride,
✓ copper,
✓ sodium, and,
✓ zinc, in addition to some toxic substances such as:
▪ arsenic,
▪ barium,
▪ cadmium,
▪ chromium,
▪ lead,
▪ mercury,
▪ selenium,
▪ silver, and cyanides. 28
 Testing chemical aspects
❖ Methods for testing chemical aspects include:
➢ Ion-specific meters: used to measure specific ions.
➢ Spectrophotometers: measure various ions & substances.
➢ Atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS): for testing metals in
water.
➢ Titration.
➢ Digital meters e.g. for pH and TDS.
➢ Portable test kits e.g. for arsenic. (not very accurate).
➢ Colour disc comparators and Test strips e.g. for pH, chlorine, iron
and nitrate. (not very accurate)

29
Atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS): Used for testing Metals in water

30
pH
❖ negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration.

+
1
𝑝𝐻 = − log10 𝐻 = log10
𝐻+

➢ It is the indicator of acidity and alkalinity of water.

➢ Acidic water 0-7, alkaline water 7-14.

➢ Neutral water pH = 7.

➢ Measured by a pH meter.

➢ Permissible limit 6.5 to 8.5.

31
 pH

❖ pH should be below 8 for optimal disinfection with

chlorine. Higher pH may lead to incomplete
disinfection.
❖ Low pH (acidic water) can lead to corrosion of water
mains and pipes and can accelerate the leaching of
heavy metals into water.
❖ Knowing pH is important in the control of water
treatment processes such as:
➢ the softening process.
➢ the coagulation process.

32
 Arsenic
❖ What is arsenic?
➢ Arsenic is a naturally occurring chemical that comes from
mineral and sedimentary deposits.
➢ It has no taste, colour or smell. It is highly poisonous.
❖ Where does it come from? It is most often found in
groundwater but can also be found in some surface water.
❖ What happens if one intakes arsenic? arsenic may cause
chronic diseases such as cancer of the skin, lungs, bladder, and
kidney. Often causes skin bulges (keratosis) on palms & feet.
❖ How to cope with arsenic in water?
➢ The best option is to stop drinking arsenic contaminated
water.
➢ One should switch to an arsenic-safe source or treat the raw
water to reduce the arsenic concentration before drinking.
33
Chronic health effects: Arsenicosis
▪ Symptoms appear slowly e.g. Keratosis (skin legions) usually take
about 10 years to show.

A C
(A) Arsenic lesions on feet; (B) arsenic lesions on hand, cancer; (C) keratosis on hand.
34
 Arsenicosis Reversal

➢ After receiving a rainwater harvesting tank through an Arsenic Mitigation

Program in Bangladesh, Halima’s symptoms of Arsenicosis disappeared.
➢ WHO Guideline Concentration
➢ 0.01 mg/L (10 μg/L)

35
 Iron
❖ Iron occurs naturally in certain groundwater and surface
water sources where rocks and sediment are high in iron.

❖ Iron may enter water from rusting steel or iron pipes.

➢ This can result from re-suspension of old deposits in
water mains.
➢ e.g. due to pipe bursts & changes in flow patterns.

❖ Iron is objectionable because it affects the taste of water &

imparts a reddish colour to water.

❖ It also stains clothes and bathroom fixtures with a yellow to

reddish-brown colour.

❖ Iron exists as Fe2+ (which is soluble) & Fe3+ (insoluble).

36
Manganese

❖ Naturally occurring manganese is often present in

significant amounts in groundwater.

❖ Anthropogenic sources include discarded batteries,

steel alloy production, and agricultural products.

❖ Water with high levels of suspended manganese

imparts a dark brown or black colour to water and
stains clothes.
➢ It also forms coatings on water pipes/fixtures.
➢ It also flavours coffee & tea with a medicinal taste.

❖ Effectively two oxidation states of manganese are of

interest, Mn2+ is soluble, and Mn4+ is insoluble.

37
Nitrates

❖ High levels of NO3- indicate that manure, sewage, or

nitrogen fertilizers are reaching the water source.
❖ The low acidity in the infants’ intestine permits the growth
of nitrate reducing bacteria which convert NO3- to NO2-.
❖ Nitrite (NO2-) has a higher affinity for hemoglobin than
oxygen in the blood, hence, when absorbed into the
bloodstream it replaces the oxygen in the blood and
converts hemoglobin into methemoglobin.
❖ The deficiency of oxygen causes suffocation. The skin
colour of the infants (at times even aged persons)
becomes blue so it is termed blue baby disease.
❖ The medical name is “methemoglobinemia”.

38
 Nitrates

❖ High hemoglobin levels can also lead to digestive

and respiratory problems, anoxia and brain damage.
❖ Nitrate is also suspected to be carcinogenic.
❖ If nitrate levels above 45 mg/l persist, the source of
the nitrate (animal confinement areas, pit latrines,
etc.) should be determined and relocated.

❖ WHO guideline concentration:

➢ Nitrate: 50 mg/l as NO3- ion
➢ Nitrite: 3 mg/l as NO2- ion.

39
Fluorides
❖ In some areas, water sources contain natural fluoride.
❖ Sources include: erosion of natural deposits and
discharge from fertilizer & Aluminium factories.
✓ Conc. of 0.5-1.0 mg/L – help to prevent dental
Cavities
✓ Conc. >2.0 mg/L results in discoloration (mottling) of
teeth
✓ Conc. > 3.6 mg/L may cause bone fluorosis and
skeleton abnormalities
✓ WHO recommended limit – 1.5 mg/L
✓ ZABS recommended limit – 1.5 mg/L

40
Fluorides
(A) Dental fluorosis (=discoloration of teeth, dark brown stains
=mottled teeth; Fluoride Conc:>2.0 mg/l)
(B) (Fluoride Conc. >3.6mg/L weakens bones (= Skeletal
fluorosis)
➢ Fluoride Conc >10mg/L causes crippling fluorosis (=
deformation of the Skeleton) )
(C) Tooth decay (= Dental cavities); Fluoride Conc.: < 0.5ppm

(A) (B) (C)

41
Chlorides
❖ Mainly present as sodium chloride.
❖ Caused by deposits of chloride salts or by pollution
from sea water, industrial & domestic wastes.
❖ Concentrations of ≥ 250 mg/L are objectionnable.
❖ High chloride concentrations may indicate sewage
pollution. Salt, NaCl, used in foods, is excreted with
body wastes e.g. urine; sanitary sewage carries these
chlorides into the receiving waters.
❖ High chloride content in water:
➢ (i) causes corrosion to metallic pipes,
➢ (ii) is harmful for irrigation, and
➢ (iii) causes objectionable taste. 42
 Sulfates

❖ Sulfate (SO42−) ions, occur in natural waters and in

wastewater or can come from mining activities.
❖ Consumption of high sulfate concentrations in drinking
water, may lead to:
❖ objectionable tastes or
❖ unwanted laxative effects and/or gastro-intestinal
irritation.

❖ Sulfates in sewage can result in offensive odours from

the formation of hydrogen sulphide gas, H2S, with its
characteristic rotten-egg odour.
➢ It also leads to a problem in sewer systems
called crown corrosion.
43
 Alkalinity

❖ Alkalinity of water is a measure of its capacity to

neutralize acids or H+.
❖ It provides buffering to resist changes in pH.
❖ Alkalinity is due to the presence of bicarbonate(HCO3-),
carbonate(CO32-), or hydroxide (OH−).
❖ It is usually expressed as mg/L as CaCO3 or in meq/L.

❖ It can be measured by titration or calculated as:

➢ Alkalinity (meq/L) = (HCO3-)+(CO32-)+(OH−)−(H+)

44
 Hardness
❖ The property of water which prevents lather formation
with soap & produces scale in hot water systems.
❖ It is mainly due to the presence of divalent cations of
Ca2+ & Mg2+ although Fe2+ & Sr2+ are also responsible.

❖ Two types of hardness are:

1. Temporary or carbonate hardness: due to metals
associated with HCO3-
➢ (Can be removed by boiling).

2. Permanent or non-carbonate hardness: due to metals

associated with SO42-, CI-, NO3-.
➢ (Cannot be removed by boiling).

45
46
Classification of Hardness in Water

Soft < 50 mg/l of CaCO3

Moderately hard 50-150 mg/l of CaCO3
Hard 150-300 mg/l of CaCO3
Very Hard > 300 mg/l of CaCO3

➢ Hardness in water used for domestic purposes is not

completely removed.
✓ It is normally removed to the level of 75 to 120 mg/L
as CaCO3
47
 Disadvantages of hard water include:

1) Causes bathtub ring due to soap scum.

2) Reduces lather, hence, increases soap consumption.

3) Causes scale formation in water heaters, boilers, heat

exchangers, tea pots, etc. increasing energy use.

4) Causes clogging/incrustation of pipes and fittings.

5) Modifies colour if used in dyeing work or when

washing clothes.

6) Causes valves to stick due to the formation of calcium

carbonate crystals.

7) Leaves stains on plumbing fixtures.

48
Determining hardness in water

❖ Hardness can be calculated by analyzing for all

cations present in a sample.
✓ Cations can be measured by instruments, such
as the AAS and ion-specific electrodes.

❖ Alternatively, hardness can be determined through

chemical titration.
❖ Typical units for hardness are mg/L as CaCO3 and
meq/L.
✓ By using these units, the contributions of
different substances (e.g., Ca2+ & Mg2+) can be
added directly.

49
 Determining hardness in water

❖ To convert a concentration in mg/L to meq/L, divide the

concentration by the substance’s equivalent weight (EW):
C
𝐶𝑞 =
𝐸𝑊
Where:
Cq = concentration in meq/L
C = concentration in mg/L
EW = equivalent weight in g/eq or mg/meq

❖ A substance’s EW is calculated by dividing its atomic weight

(AW) or molecular weight (MW) by its valence or ionic
charge (n, which is always positive):
𝐴𝑊 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑊
𝐸𝑊 =
𝑛
50
 Determining hardness in water

❖ To convert to mg/L as CaCO3, the meq/L is

multiplied by the EW of CaCO3, which is 50.0
mg/meq (i.e.100 g/mol/ 2 eq/mol).
𝐶CaCO = 𝐶𝑞 x 50.0
3
where
➢ 𝐶CaCO = concentration in mg/L as CaCO3
3
➢ 𝐶𝑞 = concentration in meq/L

❖ Note: In CaCO3, n=2 since it would take 2H+ to replace

the cation (Ca2+) to form carbonic acid, H2CO3.

(Read Vesilind et al. (2010); page 295-303).

51
 Example

❖ A water sample contains 60 mg/L of Ca2+, 60 mg/L of

Mg2+, and 25 mg/L of Na+.
➢ What is the total hardness (TH) in mg/L as CaCO3?

Solution:
▪ The first step when calculating TH is to determine
which species are relevant.
➢ Only multivalent cations (i.e. with n ≥ 2) contribute
to hardness. Therefore, we can ignore sodium.
▪ The second step is to put the concentrations of the
relevant species into units that can be added-either
meq/L or mg/L as CaCO3.
52
 Example solution
(a) In units of meq/L:

(b) To obtain mg/L as CaCO3

➢ either multiply each meq/L by 50 mg/meq then sum
them, or
➢ sum them and then multiply by 50 mg/meq.

53
 Example
❖ A drinking water sample with a pH of 7.5 has the following
ion concentrations.

❖ Check the accuracy of the analysis, determine the total hardness

(TH), alkalinity, carbonate hardness (CH), non-carbonate hardness
(NCH) and estimate the total dissolved solids (TDS). 54
 Solution
(i) Prepare a cation-anion balance to check the accuracy of the
analysis.

The sum of the concentrations of cations and ions in meq/l

should be equal to within ±10%. In this case:
❖ Σ(cations) ≈ Σ(anions), hence the analysis is reasonable.
55
 Solution

(ii) Total hardness is the sum of the multivalent

cations:
TH = ca2+ + mg 2+ = 4.5+ 2.46 = 6.96 meq/l
=6.96 meq/l x 50 mg CaC03 /meq)
= 348.0 mg/l as CaC03

(iii) Alkalinity (meq/L) = (HCO3-)+(CO32-)+(OH−)−(H+)

But only (HCO3-) is present, therefore:
Alkalinity = (HCO3-)
= 2.70 meq/l x 50 mg CaC03 /meq
= 135 mg/l as CaC03

56
 Solution
❖ To determine CH and NCH, first compare alkalinity to total
hardness (Vesilind et al. (2010); page 303).
➢ If Total Hardness > Alkalinity
CH = Alkalinity
NCH = TH – CH
➢ If Total Hardness ≤ Alkalinity
CH = TH
NCH = 0
(iv) In this case, TH > Alkalinity, therefore,
CH = Alkalinity = 135 mg/l as CaC03
(v) NCH = TH – CH = 348.0-135 = 213 mg/l as CaC03

(vi) TDS (mg/L) = Σ(cations) + Σ(anions) (using mg/l as measured)

= 198 mg/l + 490 mg/l
= 688 mg/l 57
 Class solved example
❖ Use a cation-anion balance to determine the sulfate concentration.
❖ Also calculate TH, CH, NCH, Alkalinity, and TDS.

Answer:
SO42- = 1.60 meq/L= 77 mg/l.

TDS =129 + 73 + 151 +1 + 77

= 431 mg/L.

58
 Practice question
❖ A lab technician has given you the following water quality results.
❖ Estimate the missing values if the alkalinity and the noncarbonate
hardness are 50 and 100 mg/L as CaCO3, respectively.
❖ (Hints: (i) assume that the alkalinity is solely due to bicarbonate, (ii)
calculate Mg2+ from TH (recall TH = CH + NCH, also TH = ca2+ + mg 2+ ),
(iii) also remember to use a cation-anion balance.

Answers:
✓ Mg2+ = 10.94 mg/l
✓ Na+ = 7.13 mg/L
✓ HCO3- = 61.02 mg/L
59
Physical aspects of water
These are characteristics of water which
respond to senses (i.e. sense of touch,
smell, sight and taste). These include:
➢ Temperature

➢ Color

➢ Taste and odor

➢ Turbidity

➢ Electrical conductivity

➢ Solids
60
Temperature
▪ It indicates how cold or hot water is.
▪ It depends on the source of water.
▪ Is measured by thermometers.
▪ Desirable temperature for drinking water is
✓ 10-15˚C;Temp. above 25˚C is objectionable.

61
Temperature (significance) in water treatment

❖ By using Temp. the density, viscosity, etc. of water

can be estimated.

❖ The rate at which chemicals dissolve and react is

somewhat dependent on temp.

❖ Cold water generally requires more chemicals for

efficient coagulation and flocculation to take place.

❖ Water with a higher temp. may result in a higher

chlorine demand because of increased reactivity
❖and also because there is usually an increased level
of organic matter, such as algae, in the raw water.
62
Color
➢ Often the color in water is not true color but apparent
color.

➢ True colour is due to dissolved solids (hard to remove).

➢ Apparent color is a result of suspended solids (easy to

remove). Colour in tea is an example of apparent colour.

➢ Colour intensity is measured by visual comparison of the

water sample with glass tubes containing solutions of
different standard colour intensity.

➢ Coloured water is mainly undesirable for its appearance

and may discolour clothing and affect industrial processes.

63
Comparator for colour measurement

64
Causes of colour in water
❖ Substances that can make water coloured include:
✓ Vegetation and other organic materials can cause
dark brown or yellow colour.
✓ Silt and clay often cause a brown or red colour.
✓ Iron can cause a reddish colour.
✓ Manganese can cause a black colour.
✓ Algae can make water look green.
✓ Bacterial growth can also turn water black (or other
colours).
✓ Industrial pollution can introduce colour in water.
65
 Taste and odour
❖ Most people prefer water that tastes and smells good.

❖ May indicate contamination with potentially harmful

substances or may make people find another source.

Causes of taste and odour in water include:

o Algae & some bacteria may cause unpleasant taste
&smell
o Sulphates may cause bitter taste & rotten egg smell.
o Iron in water may cause it to taste bad.
o Mineral concentration affects taste.
o Chlorine affects taste and smell.
o Washing detergents & animal fecal matter may cause
tastes and odours. 66
Taste and odor
➢ Measured by diluting the sample until the taste & odour are
no longer detectable by a human test using threshold odour
number (TON) or threshold taste number (TTN).

➢ Each bottle contains 200 mL of liquid consisting of a mixture

of sample water and odor-free distilled water.

A+B
TON or TTN =
A
Where:
A= Volume of water sample in (ml).
B= Volume of distilled water required to reduce odour or taste (ml).

➢ Note: Vol. of A+B = 200 ml.

➢ For public water supply TON ≤ 3. 67
 Electrical conductivity (EC)
➢ The EC of water depends on the quantity of dissolved solids
present (i.e. more dissolved solids = more conductivity).

➢ It is used to estimate Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), or check on

the results of complete water analysis,
➢ given by:

➢ The value of K for most waters ranges

from 0.55-0.70.

➢ EC is measured by a conductivity meter.

68
 Solids

Total Suspended Solids (TSS): solids not dissolved.

➢ SIZE: TSS >0.45µm,

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): dissolved salts & O.M.

➢ SIZE: TSS < 0.45µm,

➢ TDS (mg/l) = k*EC(µs/cm);

Total Solids (TS) = TDS + TSS

Colloids-Technically suspended but mainly exhibit

characteristics of dissolved solids.
69
Total dissolved solids (TDS)

❖ TDS describes the concentration of dissolved inorganic

salts and organic material in water.

❖ TDS may come from natural sources (e.g., rocks and

minerals) or run off from agriculture or roads or from
saltwater intrusion.

❖ There are no proven health problems from consuming

water with high TDS,
➢ but water with a TDS concentration greater than
1000 mg/L is usually not acceptable due to taste.
➢ Useful for assessing suitability of water for diff uses,
in conjunction with a detailed chemical analysis.

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 Turbidity
❖ Turbidity is a measure of the cloudiness or clarity of water.
❖ It is usually caused by clay, silt, and other colloidal or
suspended particles & chemical precipitates in water.
❖ Particles that cause turbidity usually shield microbes
against disinfection
➢ and may produce other disinfection by-products
(DBPs) when chlorine is added to water.
❖ Pathogens can also attach to particles that cause turbidity.
✓ Some particles are microbes themselves e.g. bacteria.
❖ Turbidity sometimes indicates that water quality is poor, or
that a water treatment system is not working properly.
❖ High turbidity makes filtration more difficult and costly.
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 Turbidity
❖ Turbidity is measured with a nephelometer or
turbidity meter & the unit is Nephelometric Turbidity
Unit (NTU).
✓ The nephelometer measures intensity of light
scattered by the colloids or suspended particles.
❖ WHO Guideline:
❖ ≤5 NTU for aesthetic reasons.
❖ ≤1 NTU for effective disinfection.

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The higher the turbidity the cloudier the water.
Drinking water Treatment: Typical turbidity sampling
points

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Drinking water Supply: Typical turbidity sampling points
1. Turbidity of raw water entering the plant.

2. Turbidity reduction by pre-sedimentation;

✓ helps the operator determine coagulant dose.

3. Turbidity removal by coagulation, flocculation, and

sedimentation processes;
✓ assists the operator in monitoring the efficiency of the process.

4. Turbidity after filtration; continuous monitoring of turbidity for

each filter monitors for turbidity break-through,
✓ which is one of the indicators of the need for filter backwashing.

5. Turbidity of all treated water leaving the plant;

✓ monitors compliance with drinking water regulations for maximum
allowable effluent turbidity.
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 WATER QUALITY STANDARDS – ZABS
PARAMETER UNITS ZS 190 ZS 190
(1990) (2010)
pH - 6.5 – 9.0 6.5 – 8.0
Conductivity µS/cm 2300 1500
Turbidity NTU 10 5
Colour Hz 15 15
TDS mg/L 1500 1000
Suspended Solids mg/L 50 50
Total Copper mg/L 1.0 1.0
Total Cobalt mg/L 0.05 0.5
Total Manganese mg/L 0.05 0.1
Total Iron mg/L 1.0 0.3
Total Calcium mg/L 200 200
Total Magnesium mg/L 150 150
Sulphate mg/L 400 400
Nitrate mg/L 10 10
Total Chloride mg/L 150 250
Residual Chlorine – Water Plants mg/L 2.0 2.0
Residual Chlorine – Consumer points mg/L 0.2 – 0.5 0.2 – 0.5
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 WATER QUALITY STANDARDS – ZABS
Total Hardness mg/L 500 500
P. Alkalinity mg/L 0 0
Langlier Index - -2.0 – 1.5 -2.0 – 1.5
Rayzner Index - 6.5 – 9.6 6.5 – 9.6
Total Coliforms – Water Plants Cfu/100ml 20 0

Feacal Coliforms – Water Plants Cfu/100ml 0 0

Total Coliforms – Consumer points Cfu/100ml 20 10

Feacal Coliforms – Consumer points Cfu/100ml 0 0

Zinc mg/L 5 3
Lead mg/L 0.05 0.01
Nickel mg/L 0.05 0.05
Chromium mg/L 0.05 0.05
Silver mg/L 0.05 0.05
Cadmium mg/L 0.005 0.003
Flouride mg/L 1.5 1.5
Mercury mg/L 0.005 0.001
Aluminium mg/L 0.2 0.2
Sodium mg/L 200 200 76
Arsenic mg/L 0.05 0.01
 Best wishes &
Thank you for your attention
Prepared & presented by Dr. Eng. Stephen Siwila
Mobile: +260-972-470-543
Email: ssiwilatabbie@yahoo.co.uk
ssiwilatabbie@gmail.com

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