VIRTUAL INTERNSHIP REPORT

INDIAN OIL CORPORATION LTD. (GUWAHATI)

A Project Report
Submitted by
Lakshya Gothwal
In the partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
Of

Bachelor of Technology
In
Mechanical Engineering

By

Lakshya Gothwal
 Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

PREFACE

Industrial training plays a vital role in the progress of future engineers. Not
only does it provide insights about the future concerns, it also bridges the gap
between theory and practical knowledge. We are fortunate that we were
provided with an opportunity of undergoing industrial training at INDIAN
OIL CORPORATION LTD., Guwahati The experience gained during this short
period was fascinating to say the least. It was a tremendous feeling to observe
the operation of different units and processes. It was overwhelming for us to
notice how such a big refinery is being monitored and operated with proper
coordination to achieve desired results. During our training we realised that in
order to be a successful Mechanical Engineer one needs to put his/her concepts
into action. Thus, we hope that this training serves as a stepping stone for us in
future and help us to carve a niche for ourselves in this field.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

My indebtedness and gratitude to the many individuals who have helped

to sape this report in its present form cannot be adequately conveyed in
just a few sentences. Yet I must record my immense gratitude to those
who helped me undergo this valuable learning experience at IOCL
Guwahati.

I am highly obliged to the Learning and Training Department (Guwahati

Refinery) for providing us this opportunity to intern at IOCL,Guwahati .

I am grateful to Ms. Debanuja Borah for her simple yet effective

explanation of Guwahati Refinery as a whole and guiding us about various
other aspects of career as a mechanical engineer.

Further I would like to thank Mr Aritra Parmanik Asst. Project Manager

( Mechanical), Guwahati Refinery for his immense support who guided me
to complete the report.
Contents
PREFACE............................................................................................................................................................... 2

ACKNOWLEDGMENT......................................................................................................................................... 3

ABOUT IOCL......................................................................................................................................................... 7

VISION................................................................................................................................................................... 8

REFINERIES....................................................................................................................................................... 10

PIPELINES.......................................................................................................................................................... 13

INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................................... 14

GUWAHATI REFINERY.................................................................................................................................... 15

PUMPS................................................................................................................................................................... 21
TYPES OF PUMPS................................................................................................................................................. 22
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMP...................................................................................................................... 22
1.) GEAR PUMP.................................................................................................................................................... 23
2). SCREW PUMP.................................................................................................................................................. 26
3). VANE PUMP..................................................................................................................................................... 27
4). AXIAL PISTON PUMP....................................................................................................................................... 29
NON POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT......................................................................................................................... 30
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP............................................................................................................................................. 31
SEAL........................................................................................................................................................... 37
1.) Packing seal.......................................................................................................................................... 38
2.) Mechanical seal.................................................................................................................................... 38
3.) Double seals......................................................................................................................................... 39
4.) Tandem seals........................................................................................................................................ 39
5.) Cartridge seals...................................................................................................................................... 40
6.) Gas barrier seal.................................................................................................................................... 40
BEARING............................................................................................................................40
COUPLING........................................................................................................................ 41
HOW TO SELECT BETWEEN POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT AND CENTRIFUGAL PUMP......................................................42
TYPE OF HEAT EXCHANGERS........................................................................................................................... 45
FLOW CONFIGURATION:........................................................................................................................................ 46
CONSTRUCTION METHOD:..................................................................................................................................... 46
HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISM................................................................................................................................ 47
SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER...................................................................................................................... 48
TYPES OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS.................................................................................................... 49
1. U-tube heat exchanger............................................................................................................................. 49
2. Fixed tube heat exchanger...................................................................................................................... 50
3. Floating head heat exchanger................................................................................................................. 51
TEMA CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER........................................................................................................ 54
HOW SHELL AND TUBE FLUID IS DECIDED............................................................................................................... 59
 BOILER................................................................................................................................................................ 60
CONDENSER......................................................................................................................................................... 61
HYDROTEST PROCEDURES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS................................................................................................ 63
VIBRATIONS........................................................................................................................................................ 64
FUNDAMENTALS OF VIBRATION.................................................................................................................... 64
Machine Vibration........................................................................................................................................... 64
Why Monitor Machine Vibration?................................................................................................................ 66
VIBRATION MONITORING SENSORS & SELECTIONS................................................................................................. 68
Sensors & Sensor Selection:.......................................................................................................................... 68
Applications.................................................................................................................................................... 69
VALVES................................................................................................................................................................ 70
WHAT IS A VALVE?................................................................................................................................................ 70
Common Valves Used In PANIPAT REFINERY............................................................................................ 70
1. GATE VALVE................................................................................................................................................. 71
Limitations...................................................................................................................................................... 72
2. BALL VALVE................................................................................................................................................. 72
Application in Refinery.................................................................................................................................... 72
3. BUTTERFLY VALVE........................................................................................................................................ 74
Application in Refinery.................................................................................................................................... 75
Limitations...................................................................................................................................................... 75
4. PLUG VALVE............................................................................................................................................. 76
Advantages.................................................................................................................................................... 76
Limitations...................................................................................................................................................... 76
5. GLOBE VALVE.......................................................................................................................................... 77
Advantages.................................................................................................................................................... 77
6. NON RETURNING VALVE............................................................................................................................... 78
Operational Principal of Check Valve............................................................................................................. 78
SAFETY VALVES............................................................................................................................................... 80
FINDINGS.............................................................................................................................................................. 84
BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................................................................................................................................... 85
 ABOUT IOCL

Indian Oil Corporation is India's largest commercial enterprise, with a

sales turnover of Rs. 438710 crore and profits of Rs. 19,106 crore the year
2019-20. The improvement in operational and financial performance for
2019-20 reflected in the market capitalization of the company, which grew
to-fold, from Rs. 95564 crores as on 31st March 2019 to Rs. 187948
crores as on 31st March 2020. In view of its rising share price and market
capitation, India Oil was included in the Nifty 50 index (NSE benchmark
index of 50 best performing corporates). Indian Oil is ranked 161 st among
the world's largest corporates (and first among Indian enterprises) in the
prestigious “Fortune Global 500” listing for the year 2016.
As India's flagship national oil company, with a 33000-strong work force
currently, Indian Oil has been meeting India's energy demands for over
half a century. With a corporate vision to be ‘The Energy of India’ and to
become ‘A globally admired company’. Indian Oils business interests
straddle the entire hydrocarbon value-chain from refining pipeline
transportation and marketing of petroleum products to exploration and
production of crude oil and gas, marketing of natural gas and
petrochemicals, besides conversion into alternative energy and
globalisation of downstream operations.
Having set up subsidiaries in Sri Lanka, Mauritius and the UAE, the
Corporation is simultaneously scouting for new business opportunities in
the energy markets of Asia and Africa. It has also formed about 20 joint
ventures with reputed business partners from India and abroad to pursue
diverse business interests.
 VISION

Indian Oil’s ‘Vision with Values’ encompasses the Corporation’s new

aspirations – to broaden its horizons, to expand across new vistas, and to
infuse new-age dynamism among its employees.
Adopted in the company’s Golden Jubilee year (2009), as a ‘shared vision’
of Indian Oil People and other stakeholders, it is a matrix of six
cornerstones that would together facilitate the Corporation’s endeavours to
be ‘The Energy of India’ and to become ‘A globally admired company.
More importantly, the Vision is infused with the core values of Care,
Innovation, Passion and Trust, which embody the collective conscience of
the company and its people, and have helped it to grow and achieve new
heights of success year after year.
 REFINERIES

❖ Mathura Refinery
The Mathura Refinery, owned by Indian Oil Corporation, is located in
Mathura, Uttar Pradesh. The refinery processes low sulphur crude from
Bombay High, imported low sulphur crude from Nigeria, and high
sulphur crude from the Middle East.
The refinery, which cost Rs.253.92 crores to build, was commissioned in
January, 1982. Construction began on the refinery in October 1972. The
foundation stone was laid by Indira Gandhi, the former Prime Minister of
India. The FCCU and Sulphur Recovery Units were commissioned in
January, 1983.

❖ Digboi Refinery
The Digboi Refinery was set up at Digboi in 1901 by Assam Oil Company
Ltd. The Indian Oil Corporation Ltd (IOCL) took over the refinery and
marketing management of Assam Oil Company Ltd. with effect from 1981
and created a separate division. This division has both refinery and
marketing operations. The refinery at Digboi had an installed capacity of
0.50 MMTPA (million metric tonnes per annum). The refining capacity of
the refinery was increased to 0.65 MMTPA by modernization of refinery
in July, 1996. A new delayed Coking Unit of 1,70,000 TPA capacity was
commissioned in 1999.

❖ Gujarat Refinery
The Gujarat Refinery is an oil refinery located at Koyali (Near Vadodara)
in Gujarat, Western India. It is the Second largest refinery owned by
Indian Oil Corporation after Panipat Refinery. The refinery is currently
under projected expansion to 18 MMTPA.

❖ Haldia Refinery
The Haldia Refinery for processing 2.5 MMTPA of Middle East crude
was commissioned in January, 1975 with two sectors-one for producing
fuel products and the other for Lube base stocks.

❖ Barauni Refinery
Barauni Refinery in the Bihar state of India was built in collaboration with
the Soviet Union at a cost of Rs.49.4 crores and went on stream in July,
1964.The initial capacity of 1MMTPA was expanded to 3 MMTPA by
1969. A Catalytic Reformer Unit (CRU) was also added to the refinery in
1997 for production of unleaded motor spirit. The present capacity of this
refinery is 6.1 MMTPA.

❖ Bongaigaon Refinery
Bongaigaon Refinery is an oil refinery and petrochemical complex located
at Bongaigaon in Assam. It was announced in 1969 and construction began
in 1972.

❖ Guwahati Refinery
Guwahati Refinery is the country's first Public Sector Refinery as well
as Indian Oil's first Refinery serving the nation since 1962. Built with
Rumanian assistance, the initial crude processing capacity at the time of
commissioning of this Refinery was 0.75 MMTPA and the Refinery was
designed to process indigenous Assam Crude. The refining capacity was
subsequently enhanced to 1.0 MMTPA.
 ❖ Paradip Refinery
Paradip refinery is the 11th refinery being set up by Indian Oil Corporation
Ltd. in Paradip town in the state of Odisha. The installed capacity of
refinery was 15 MMTPA.

❖ Panipat Refinery
The Panipat refinery is the most technically advanced public sector
refinery in India. It supplies petroleum products to the state of Haryana
and the north-west region including Punjab, Chandigarh, Himachal,
Uttaranchal, Jammu & Kashmir, Rajasthan and Delhi.
PIPELINES
 INTRODUCTION

Petroleum is derived from two words – “petro” means rock and

“oleum” means oil. Thus the word “petroleum” means rock oil. This is
a mixture of hydrocarbons; hence it cannot be used directly and has
got to be refined. Petroleum is refined in petroleum refinery.

Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. (IOC) is the flagship national oil company
in the downstream sector. The Indian Oil Group of companies owns
and operates 10 of India's 19 refineries with a combined refining
capacity of 1.2 million barrels per day. These include two refineries
of subsidiary Chennai Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (CPCL) and one of
Bongaigaon Refinery and Petrochemicals Limited (BRPL). The 10
refineries are located at Guwahati, Barauni, Koyali, Haldia, Mathura,
Digboi, Panipat, Chennai, Narimanam, and Bongaigaon.

Indian Oil's cross-country crude oil and product pipelines network

span over 9,300 km. It operates the largest and the widest network
of petrol & diesel stations in the country, numbering around 16455.
Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. (Indian Oil) was formed in 1964 through
the merger of Indian Oil Company Ltd and Indian Refineries Ltd.
Indian Refineries Ltd was formed in 1958, with Feroze Gandhi as
Chairman and Indian Oil Company Ltd. was established on 30th June
1959 with Mr S. Nijalingappa as the first Chairman.
 GUWAHATI
REFINERY

Guwahati Refinery is the country's first Public Sector Refinery as well as IndianOil's first Refinery
serving the nation since 1962. Built with Rumanian assistance, the initial crude processing capacity
at the time of commissioning of this Refinery was 0.75 MMTPA and the Refinery was designed to
process indigenous Assam Crude. The refining capacity was subsequently enhanced to 1.0
MMTPA. Due to dwindling supply of indigenous Assam Crude, Guwahati Refinery started
processing Low Sulfur Imported Crude along with Assam Crude. The supply of LS imported crude
to Guwahati Refinery is from Barauni Refinery via railway wagons.

The Refinery supplies various petroleum products to Northeastern India as well as beyond, upto
Siliguri end through the Guwahati-Siliguri Pipeline, spanning 435 KM, which was the first Pipeline of
IndianOil and commissioned in 1964. Most of the products of Guwahati Refinery are evacuated
through pipeline and some quantity also through road transportation.

LPG, Naphtha, Motor Spirit (MS), Aviation Turbine Fuel, Superior Kerosene Oil, High Speed Diesel
(HSD), Raw Petroleum Coke and Sulfur are the products of this Refinery. Auto fuels MS and HSD
supplied by the refinery are of eco-friendly BS-IV grade as per statutory guidelines of Government
of India. The production of these valuable petroleum products is through a series of different primary
and secondary processing units along with the associated auxiliary facilities like Captive Power
Plant installed within the refinery.

In the primary unit of the Refinery i.e. the Crude Distillation Unit (CDU), desalted crude from the
desalter is heated up through a series of heat exchangers and is fed into a pre fractionator column.
Here the lighter gases, LPG and unstabilised gasoline are separated. The outputs from CDU are
gasoline, Kero-I, Kero-II and Straight Run Gas Oil. Reduced Coke Oil (RCO) which is the bottom
product from the main fractionating column, forms the main raw material for the Coking unit and
Indmax. In the Naphtha Splitter section, total Straight Run Naphtha is separated into three different
fractions namely Light Naphtha (LN), Reformate Naphtha (RN) and Heavy Naphtha (HN).

Delayed Coking Unit (DCU) with a capacity of 0.44 MMTPA is the main secondary unit of Guwahati
Refinery. The unit produces middle distillates from heavy ends. Main feedstock to DCU is Reduced
Crude Oil, which is heated to high temperatures of about 500oC in a furnace. Due to high
temperatures, RCO is thermally cracked and yields various hydrocarbon fractions like LPG, coker
gasoline, coker kerosene, coker gas oil, coker fuel oil, residual fuel oil and coke.
INDMAX unit, in-house technology developed by R&D Centre of IndianOil was installed for
increased production of LPG and gasoline from heavy ends like Reduced Crude Oil and Coker Fuel
Oil. Indmax unit works on the Fluidized Catalytic Cracking process similar to other Fluidised
Catalytic Cracking Units. The first commercial unit based on INDMAX technology was installed at
Guwahati Refinery with a capacity of 0.1 MMTPA, and the capacity was subsequently enhanced to
0.15 MMTPA. Besides its function of maximization of LPG, it enables the Refinery to upgrade its
residual products to high value distillate products.

Hydrotreating Unit with a capacity of 0.6 MMTPA produces High Speed Diesel (HSD), Aviation
Turbine Fuel (ATF) and Pipeline Compliant Kerosene (PCK) in blocked out mode of operation. In
HSD mode of operation, Sulfur content of diesel components ex CDU, DCU and Indmax unit is
removed and Cetane number is boosted. Smoke point of Straight Run Kerosene component is
improved in ATF and PCK modes along with desulfurization. Hydrogen required for Hydrotreating is
produced in the Hydrogen Generation Unit based on Steam Reforming technology.

Isomerization unit (45 TMTPA) produces MS components by improving Research Octane Number
upto 87.0 units and also helps in meeting the Benzene content specification of MS.

INDAdept unit (35 TMTPA , developed by IOCL-R&D and EIL, removes Sulfur content from Heavy
Cut of Indmax gasoline to < 50 ppm to meet the Sulfur specification of BS-VI quality MS.

The Sulphur Recovery Unit (5 TPD) in the Refinery takes care of the sour off gases from the various
units for removal of Hydrogen Sulphide. This is done by Amine treatment after which H2S is
converted to sulphur through Claus process.

Guwahati Refinery is amongst those Indian Refineries who have standardized their various systems
and has been awarded with ISO-9001 for Quality Management, ISO-14001 for Environment
management, OHSAS-18001 for Occupational Health and Safety and ISO-27001 for Information
Security management. Guwahati Refinery has also been certified with the ISO-50001 certification in
recognition of its sincere efforts to manage its energy usage in an efficient manner. Guwahati
Refinery is also known for its sincere efforts on development as well as implementation of effective
Safety, Health & Environment management systems and procedures along with good performance
in occupational health and safety.

In Reliability Improvement, the replacement of switchgears, upgradation of Distributed Control

System (DCS), Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) for turbines TG 3 & 4 and upgradation of
Load Shedding System have brought about remarkable positive changes.

"Prakriti Ke Saath - Pragati Ki O'r" explains the Refinery's commitment to environment. The
Modernized Effluent Treatment Plant commissioned in March'07, the on - line analyzers SOx
NOx ,CO,PM with connectivity to CPCB server for continuous stack emission monitoring are
watchdogs of Refinery emissions.

Guwahati Refinery is committed in its responsibility towards the community around it and the larger
society. It is also deeply committed in safeguarding and preserving ecological balance. It has been
taking proactive measures continuously for the improvement of safety, health and environment
standards due to progressive proximity of community settlements around the Refinery. The
measures include tree plantations, improvement in drainage systems, house-keeping and
cleanliness drives as well as substantive programmes adopted on successive World Environment
Days to enhance awareness of the individual and collective responsibilities towards environment
preservation among the employees and their families, students and the community in general.

The Refinery's concerns for environment protection is further demonstrated by extensive tree
plantation and development of Ecological Park and Sanjeevani Udayan in and around the Refinery
further spearhead its efforts to the cause of ecological balance. Planting and preserving bio-
diversified species are continual efforts in preserving bountiful nature. Periodic campaigns are also
carried out in the neighborhood to bring home the importance of a clean environment.

Emergency planning and response is ensured through well laid out Onsite and Offsite Disaster
Management plans and periodic drills on simulated scenarios. All credible scenarios like Fire and
Vapor Cloud Explosion, Oil Spill, Hydrocarbon release, Toxic gas release, flood, and earthquake
and security threats are incorporated in the Disaster Management Plans.

To keep air pollution in check, Guwahati Refinery has installed one Continuous Ambient Air Quality
Monitoring Station (AAQMS), with connectivity to CPCB server which continuously monitors ambient
air quality.

A number of efficient mechanisms for water pollution prevention and control are in place in the
Refinery. It has modified the API Separator by which there will be further improvement of oil
separation efficiency. A Electro chlorinator that is used to combat slime and algae formation
installed to provide continuous treated effluent chlorinated water .On-line analyzers
(pH,COD,BOD,TSS) are installed at Effluent Treatment Plant with connectivity to CPCB server for
continuous monitoring of treated effluent quality .

An effluent treatment plant with continuous system improvement by addition of Dual Media Filters,
Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF),Floating Drum Skimmer ,full-fledged pollution control laboratory and
reuse of treated effluent in the Refinery ensures the adherence to applicable standards.

The Refinery has taken up initiatives for solid waste management with processing of Accumulated
Sludge through oil recovery Bioremediation of Residual Sludge, processing of sludge in DCU.
Moreover, the Refinery has installed a solar PV system in Canteen, solar panels at roof tops of the
various locations of the refinery ,replaced general lighting with LED, processed food waste
generated from canteen and refinery township ,waste paper processing under sustainability
development.

The occupational health centre of Guwahati Refinery Hospital, since its inception in 1994, has been
providing comprehensive services to the corporation's employees, their dependents and to the
community. Periodical medical examination, Hearing Conservation Programme, Pulmonary
Function Test, Training and Awareness Programmes etc are a few of the activities which had been
undertaken in the recent past.

Total Productive Maintenance has been a way of life for refiners at Guwahati in the plant, at the
offices since October 2004, with improved work culture and employee ownership. The Refinery has
recently qualified for the TPM Excellence Award (Final Assessment) and is soon set for the TPM
Sustenance Award certification.
Enhancing skill development and knowledge management with in-house and outside training are
inbuilt HRD initiatives. Innovation and Creativity are recognized at all levels. Guwahati Refinery is
proud of continued good performance and recipient of prestigious corporate level awards.

Catering to the work life balance of its employees, the Refinery provides infrastructure facilities for
pursuing a variety of sports, games and cultural interests for all employees and their dependents.

In tune with IndianOil's commitment as a responsible stakeholder, Guwahati Refinery implements

various developmental initiatives under it CSR interventions for benefiting the local community,
especially in thrust areas like skill-development & education, empowerment of women, healthcare &
sanitation, safe drinking water, among others.

Business improvement in a globalized, liberalized and competitive market is the result of highly
effective and committed leadership. Regular communication and open sessions with Chairman,
Directors, ED and top management, enable achieving business results. Joint Management Council
meetings through participative management are held regularly and information sharing through the
net and publications ensure alignment of goals and actions at every level.
Since, this time it was not possible for us to physically
see the mechanical equipment in operation at
Guwahati refinery, we were assigning general topics
related to our course curriculum which find significance
in refinery maintenance activities. During our training
period of 45 days we were assigned various topics to
study which were used in Guwahati Refinery.

During this period we studied about different machines

like pumps, valves, safety equipment, boiler, jet
engine, compressor, pipe structure, bearings, coupling,
fans, gauges, automation technique, mechanical seal,
etc.
PUMPS
Pump is a mechanical equipment which is required to lift liquids, gasses and slurries from
a low level to a high level or to flow fluids from low pressure area to high pressure area or
as a booster in a piping network system. Pump converts mechanical energy of the motor
into fluid flow energy. Pumps are used in processes that require a high hydraulic
pressure. Pump creates a low pressure at suction side of pump and a high pressure at
the discharge side of pump, due to low pressure at suction the fluid will lift from a certain
depth and due to the high pressure at the discharge side of the pump the fluid will rise to
until it reaches the desired height. Pumps are generally operated by the mechanism that
is rotary, reciprocating.
Pump consumes energy while performing mechanical work that is to move fluid from one
location to another location and this energy is derived from either manual operation,
electricity, engine, wind power etc.

Applications
Pumps are used for a variety of purposes. Today, the pump are used for:

1. Irrigation
2. Water supply
3. Gasoline supply
4. Air conditioning systems
5. Refrigeration
6. Chemical movement
7. Sewage movement
8. Flood control
9. This is also used for Water cooling and fuel injection in automobile
10. Pumping oil or gas and operating cooling towers in the energy industry, etc

Due to a wide variety of applications, pumps are available in various shapes and
sizes
 Types of Pumps

A pump can be broadly be classified into two categories, and those are:

● Positive Displacement Pump

● Non-Positive Displacement Pump

Positive Displacement Pump

A positive-displacement pump moves a fluid by trapping a fixed amount of fluid and

forcing that trapped volume into the discharge pipe. At the side of suction, the pumps
have an increasing cavity as well as a reducing cavity at the side of discharge. Because
the fluid can be sucked on the inlet side while the cavity increases & releases it whenever
the cavity reduces.The positive displacement pump provides a stable flow at a speed
despite changes within the counter force. The action of the pumping of the pump is cyclic.
The volume is constant through each cycle of operation. There are three types of Positive
Displacement Pump, and those are:

● Rotary Pump
 ● Reciprocating Pump
● Linear Pump

Rotary Pump:
In a rotator type pump, the liquid can be supplied using a rotary, and its rotation moves
the liquid from the lake to the releasing pipe. The best examples of these pumps mainly
include screw pump, internal gear, flexible impeller, sliding vane, helical twisted roots,
circumferential pump, etc. These pumps are classified into three types namely gear
pumps, screw pumps, and rotator vane pumps.

Reciprocating pumps:
Reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump. In reciprocating pumps a certain
volume of liquid is collected in enclosed volume and is discharged using pressure..
Reciprocating pumps are more suitable for low volumes of flow at high pressures. These
pumps are classified into the piston pump, plunger pump, and diaphragm pump.

Few different types of positive displacement pumps are discussed below:

1.) Gear Pump

The gear pump is a positive displacement rotating pump in which fluid moves with the
help of inbuilt gears. This type of pump includes two or more gears that create vacuum
force to drive the liquid within the pump. These pumps have high-pressure and are
available in tiny sizes to supply constant liquid flow. The main benefits of using these
pumps are, it can drive high thickness fluids, it is easy to operate and easy to maintain
 Types of Gear Pumps
Gear pumps are generally classified into two types which are:

● External Gear Pump

● Internal Gear Pump

A). External Gear Pump

The drive and driven gear are assembled inside the bearing blocks and float slightly within
the body cavity. With high pressure on one side of the gears the floating gear and bearing
assembly are forced back against the inlet side of the pump body, therefore, giving very low
clearance between the rotating gears and the pump body; this helps give the high
volumetric efficiency of the design.

Features of External Gear Pump

The features of this pump include the following

● These are sufficient to distribute high capacities because of their huge outlets.
● It manages the pressures like low, medium otherwise high
● The shaft support as well as close tolerance on both surfaces of gears.
B). Internal Gear Pump
An internal gear pump works on a similar principle except the two linking gears sizes are
different with one revolving within the other. The rotor is a larger gear and also an inner
gear, and it has the teeth projecting inside.

Features of Internal Gear Pumps

The features of internal gear pumps include the following

● It can be run for a small phase.

● The net positive suction head (NPSH) requirement is very low.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Gear Pumps

● Maintenance is simple
● It handles an extensive range of viscosities
● Output is controllable
● Easy to reconstruct
● Cavitations are less sensitive
● The liquid should be free of abrasives
● Interlocking gears can also be loud
Applications of Gear Pumps
● These pumps are usually used for driving high thickness fluids like oil, resins, paints,
otherwise foodstuffs.
● Both the internal and external pumps are commonly used in different fuel, lube oils,
solvents and alcohols
● The external gear pumps are used in chemical preservative, mixing and blending of
chemical, agriculture, industrial, and mobile hydraulic applications.

2). Screw pump

This is a positive displacement pump which can be built with several screws. Screw
pumps operate using two counter-rotating screw rotors which are engineered so that
they rotate towards each other. This traps the fluid in the space between the screws
of their rotors. As the screws rotate, this trapped volume decreases which
compresses the fluid and moves it towards the exhaust.
 Screw Pumps Types
There different types of screw pumps which are available in the market in different
designs.

A). One-Screw Pump

B). Two Screw Pump
C). Three Screw Pump
D). Four Screw Pump
E). Five-Screw Pump

Advantages and Disadvantages of screw pump

● These pumps provide the maximum flow speed of Positive Displacement pumps.
● So these pumps are generally used to work with hard liquids which are not easily
movable and which are required to transport quickly like oil, gas and other high
thickness liquids.
● These pumps are a good choice for 2-phase fluid as well as gas mixtures. But with
the exemption of only pumps, these are not suitable for shifting dirt free liquids at
stable rates. Additionally, the difficulty of these pumps frequently comes with
amplified protection and small gear as contrasted to more easy pumps.

Screw Pump applications

● These pumps have many uses in a variety of applications in industries like oil,
manufacturing, gas, and mining.
● Most of the pump applications are high viscosity fluids otherwise oil,multi-stage
liquid, which means there is fluid and steam mixed jointly within the liquid stream.
● Some of the examples where these pumps are used include Multiphase Pumping,
Lubrication, Hydraulic Systems, and Weighty Oil Pipeline.
3). Vane pump

A vane pump uses a rotating cylinder with slots (or rotors) housing a series of vanes that
rotate inside the cavity. The rotor is offset in a casing bore, so that when rotated, the vanes
slide in and out. This creates expanding and contracting volumes that move liquid through
the pump. Vane pumps can handle moderately viscous fluids, but are best suited for lower
viscosity applications, such as gas (propane), ammonia, solvents, fuel oils, alcohol, and etc.
These pumps have no internal metal-to-metal contact and self-compensate for wear
enabling them to maintain peak performance on these non-lubricating liquids

Advantages and Disadvantages of Vane pump

● Sliding contact of vanes make this pump a great option for thin liquids
● Compensates for wear through vane extension
● Can run dry for short periods of time
● Good vacuum characteristics
● Complex housing and many parts
● Not suitable for high pressure or high viscosity applications
● Not good for abrasive applications

Applications of vane pump

● Vane pumps can be used in low-pressure gas applications
 ● Vane pumps are commonly used as high-pressure hydraulic pumps and in
automobiles.
● This type of pump includes espresso and soft drink dispensing machines and some
air conditioning units.
● A few different parts of the automobile utilise this type of pump, including braking,
power steering, automatic transmission and supercharging.

4). Axial Piston Pump

Axial piston pumps are positive displacement pumps that use multiple cylinders grouped
around a central axis. The pump operates by driving the piston down into the chamber,
thereby compressing the media inside. In a hand pump, this is usually air. Once the
pressure of the air exceeds that of the outlet valve spring, the compressed media goes
through the open outlet valve. When the piston is drawn back up, it opens the inlet valve
and closes the outlet valve, thereby utilizing suction to draw in new media for compression.

Advantage and Disadvantage of Axial Piston Pump

● Piston pumps have a wide pressure range, can reach high pressures and the
pressure can be controlled without an impact on the rate of flow
● . Piston pumps have a continuous rate of discharge.
● Pressure changes and discharge rate have minimal effect on performance.
 ● Piston pumps can maneuver viscous fluids, high gas volumes and solids, only if the
valves are correctly designed.
● Piston pumps cost more per unit to run compared to centrifugal and roller pumps.
● The mechanical parts are prone to wear, so the maintenance costs can be high.
● The valves must be resistant to abrasives for large solids to pass through.
● Piston pumps are heavy due to their large size and the weight of the crankshaft that
drives the pump.

Axial Piston Pump Application

● They are used to power the hydraulic systems of jet aircrafts,

● Being gear-driven off of the turbine engine's main shaft,
● Often used for automotive air conditioning compressors for cabin cooling.
● Pressure washers also use these pumps
● Axial reciprocating motors are used to power many machines. They operate on the
same principles as axial piston pumps, except that the circulating fluid is provided
under substantial pressure and the piston housing rotates and provides shaft power
to another machine. A typical use of an axial reciprocating motor is powering small
earthmoving machines such as skid loader machines.

Non Positive Displacement

They are also known as hydro-dynamic pumps. In these pumps the pressure produced is
proportional to the rotor speed. The fluid in these pumps is displaced and transferred
using the inertia of the fluid in motion. These pumps are incapable of withstanding high
pressures and are generally used for low-pressure and high-volume flow applications.
Non-positive displacement pumps make use of Newton’s first law of motion to move the
fluid against the system resistance. In these types of pumps it is possible to completely
block the outlet to stop all flow even while the pump is running at the designed speed.
Thus the pump flow rate depends not only on the rotational speed (rpm) at which it is
driven but also on the resistance of the external system. As the resistance of the external
system increases, some of the fluid will slip back, causing a reduction in the discharge
flow rate. When the resistance of the external system becomes very large, the pump will
produce no flow and thus its volumetric efficiency becomes zero. Examples of these
pumps are
 ● Centrifugal Pump
● Axial Pump.

Centrifugal Pump

Centrifugal pumps are used to transport fluids by converting the rotational kinetic energy
to the hydrodynamic energy of the fluid flow. The rotational energy generally comes from
an engine or electric motor. The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the
rotating axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward into a diffuser or
volute chamber (casing), from where it exits.
Common uses of centrifugal pumps include water, sewage, petroleum and petrochemical
pumping. The reverse function of the centrifugal pump is a water turbine converting
potential energy of water pressure into mechanical rotational energy.

Working Of a Centrifugal Pump The purpose of a centrifugal pump is

to convert the energy of an electric motor or turbine first into kinetic energy of fluid and
then into pressure energy of a fluid that is being pumped. The change in energy occurs by
the help of two main parts of the pump, the impeller and the diffuser. The impeller is the
rotating part that converts driver energy into the kinetic energy. The diffuser is the
stationary part that converts the kinetic energy into pressure energy.

Generation of Centrifugal Force In this process the liquid enters the

suction nozzle and then into the eye (center) of a revolving device known as an impeller.
When the impeller rotates, it spins the liquid sitting in the cavities between the vanes
outward and provides centrifugal acceleration. As liquid leaves the eye of the impeller a
low-pressure area is created causing more liquid to flow toward the inlet. Because the
impeller blades are curved, the fluid is pushed in a tangential and radial direction by the
centrifugal force. Figure below shows a side cross-section of a centrifugal pump indicating
 the movement of the liquid.

Conversion of Kinetic Energy to Pressure Energy

The key idea is that the energy created by the centrifugal force is kinetic energy. The
amount of energy given to the liquid is proportional to the velocity at the edge or vane tip of
the impeller. The faster the impeller revolves or the bigger the impeller is, then the higher will
be the velocity of the liquid at the vane tip and the greater the energy imparted to the liquid.
This kinetic energy of a liquid coming out of an impeller is harnessed by creating a
resistance to the flow. The first resistance is created by the pump volute (casing) that
catches the liquid and slows it down. In the discharge nozzle, the liquid further decelerates
and its velocity is converted to pressure according to Bernoulli’s principle. Therefore, the
head developed is approximately equal to the velocity energy at the periphery of the impeller
expressed by the following formula:

H=v 2 /2 g

Where

● H= total head developed.

● v = Velocity at periphery of impeller.
● g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s 2 )
 Formula for peripheral velocity is

v=π N D/60

Where

● N=¿ The impeller RPM

● D = The diameter of impeller
● v = The peripheral velocity of impeller inm/s 2

Different Components of Centrifugal

Pumps

A centrifugal pump has many components but few main components are discussed below:

● Impeller
● Shaft
● Casing
● Diffuser
 1.) Impeller
The impeller is the main rotating part of a centrifugal pump which transfers energy from
the motor that drives the pump to the fluid that is pumped by accelerating the fluid
outward from the center of rotation. An impeller is a short cylinder with an open inlet (eye)
for accepting the fluid that has to be pumped, Impellers have vanes that flow from the
center to the outer edge of a circle. As the impeller rotates, it pulls liquid in at the center,
or eye, of the impeller, and the spinning vanes create the centrifugal force that pushes the
liquid to the outside of the pump casing, and ultimately out the discharge port.
There are three basic impeller designs

● Closed Impellers
● Semi-open Impellers
● Open Impellers

a.) Closed impellers have vanes that are sandwiched between two solid circular plates.
The liquid travels through the channels between the impellers and between the plates. This
design creates the most efficient flow from the eye to the discharge port. While this is the
most common type of impeller centrifugal pumps with this design are intended for clear
liquids.

closed impeller

b.) Semi-open impellers have vanes that are attached to a single plate, leaving the other
side of the impeller exposed to the interior of the pump housing. This design has less
efficiency than the closed impeller because the liquid is immediately interacting with the rest
of the liquid in the pump casing. Semi-closed impellers are usually used with liquids or
products that have solids. It can also pass solid materials which is an important trade off.

semi open impeller

c.) Open impeller has vanes open on both sides. As vanes do not have support on either
side, they tend to be weaker. Pumps with open impellers are smaller and less powerful in
order to reduce the frequency of braking vanes. Due to the open design, the liquid flowing
into the pump interacts with the liquid already in the casing, causing this type of centrifugal
pump to be the least efficient.

open impeller

The type of impeller used in a centrifugal pump depends on the requirements of the pump.
 Most often, applications require the most efficient flow of liquid possible, which is done by
closed impellers. These are the strongest design, allowing them to move higher volumes
of water faster.

2.) Shaft
The basic purpose of a centrifugal pump shaft is to transmit the torques encountered when
starting and during operation while supporting the impeller and other rotating parts. It must
do this job with a deflection less than the minimum clearance between the rotating and
stationary parts.
Pump shafts are usually protected from erosion, corrosion, and wear at the seal chambers,
leakage joints, internal bearings, and in the waterways by renewable sleeves this sleeve is
known as shaft sleeve.

3.) Casing
A casing can be explained as a shell, cover or a housing which protects and supports most
of the components. In pumps, the casing is basically used to seal it to prevent leakage and
sometimes retain pressure. It is also used to support some of the key parts such as shafts,
bearings, etc.
4.) Diffuser
Diffuser in a centrifugal pump is a set of stationary vane that surrounds the impeller.
Diffuser increases the efficiency of the centrifugal pump by gradually increasing the area
and reducing the turbulence near the impeller vane tip. The diffuser vanes are designed in
such a way that the liquid exiting the impeller experiences an increase in flow area as it
passes through the diffuser. This increase in flow area causes reduction in flow
velocity(kinetic energy is converted into flow pressure).

Specifications of a Centrifugal Pump in Refinery

Offered Capacity: 317 LPM

RPM: 1450

Efficiency: 93%

Mounting: Horizontal

Sealing: Mechanical Seal

Power Rated : 7 KW
❖ Seal

Seal in a centrifugal pump prevents the liquid from leaking from the rotating shaft. In the
case of centrifugal pumps gland packing seal and different arrangements of mechanical
seals can be used. Each type is described briefly below.

1.) Packing seal

Packing consists of a soft material which is often formed into rings. This is pressed into a
chamber around the drive shaft called the stuffing box to create a seal. Packing seals
require lubrication to avoid the build-up of frictional heat.Packing is unsuitable for sealing
pumps used for liquids containing abrasive particulates. Solids can become embedded in
the packing material and this may then damage the pump shaft or stuffing box wall.

packing seal

2.) Mechanical seal

essentially consist of one or more pairs of optically flat, highly polished faces, one
stationary in the housing and one rotating, connected to the drive shaft The faces
require lubrication, either by the pumped liquid itself or by a barrier fluid. In effect, the
seal faces are only in contact when the pump is at rest. During use, the lubricating
liquid provides a thin, hydrodynamic film between the opposing seal faces, reducing
wear and aiding heat dissipation.
 Mechanical seal

Mechanical seals can handle a wide range of liquids, viscosities, pressures, and
temperatures. However, a mechanical seal should not be run dry. A key advantage of
mechanical seal systems is that the drive shaft and casing are not part of the sealing
mechanism and are not therefore subject to wear.

3.) Double seals

Double seals use two mechanical seals positioned back to back.The barrier liquid must
also be compatible with the pumped medium. Double seals are more complex to operate
because of the need for pressurisation and are typically used only when it is necessary to
protect personnel, external components and the surrounding environment from
hazardous, toxic or flammable liquids.

Double seal
 4.) Tandem seals
Tandem seals are similar to double seals but the two sets of mechanical seals face in the
same direction rather than back-to-back. An additional sealing chamber has been
mounted on the existing shaft seal. The purpose of the sealing chamber is to guarantee
that liquid does not leak from the pump housing.

5.) Cartridge seals

Tandem seals are similar to double seals but the two sets of mechanical seals face in the
same direction rather than back-to-back. An additional sealing chamber has been
mounted on the existing shaft seal. The purpose of the sealing chamber is to guarantee
that liquid does not leak from the pump housing.

6.) Gas barrier seal

These are cartridge-style dual seats with faces designed to be pressurised using an inert
gas as a barrier, replacing the traditional lubricating liquid. Seal faces may be separated
or held in loose contact during operation by adjusting the gas pressure. A small amount of
gas may escape into the product and atmosphere.

❖ Bearing

A bearing is a part that helps in reducing friction on the moving parts in a pump for the
smooth rotation of the pump shaft.
Bearing are classified into two types

● Radial bearing
● Thrust bearing
 Radial bearings are designed to withstand forces that are perpendicular to the
direction of the shaft.

Thrust bearings are designed to withstand force in the same direction as the shaft.
This is called a thrust load.

Roller bearings are bearings that use cylindrical shape rollers between the moving
parts. They reduce the friction and can support radial load and axial load, depending
on design. Roller bearings are of different types such as cylindrical, tapered, and
needle bearing.

Ball bearings are a type of bearing that uses balls to support the movement of the
parts. They are simple in design and are suitable for high speeds and easy to
maintain. Ball bearings are good for radial load and axial load.

Spherical bearing is a bearing that permits angular rotation about a central point in
two orthogonal directions. These bearings generally support a rotating shaft in the
bore of the inner ring that must move not only rotationally, but also at an angle.

Sleeve Bearings are best suited for high speeds. They are ideal for radial loads
only, and are generally designed to “float”. They can be built of metallic alloys,
sintered metals, and plastics.

❖ Coupling

A coupling is a device used to connect two shafts together at their ends for the purpose of
transmitting power. The main purpose of pump coupling is to connect the pump shaft to
the motor for efficient transfer of power from motor to pump shaft.
Centrifugal pumps generally have one of the following types of couplers:

1.) Split couplers This is a solid metal coupler that connects the pump shaft to the
motor shaft. A split coupler is made of steel so it does not provide any flexion. The
sole purpose of the split coupling is to connect a standard motor to the pump end.
Split couplers can make the pump easier to service.

2.) Flexible Couplers These couplers are typically made of a rubber material
sandwiched between two metal hubs. This type of coupler joins the standard frame
motor to the pump end but also provides a certain amount of flexion or bending
movement. Flexible couplers act as a sacrificial fuse that breaks to protect the motor
bearings and the pump shaft. A flexible coupler helps compensate for various types
of misalignment that occur during typical operation.

3.) Closed Coupled There are some pumps that do not have couplers at all. These
are referred to as close coupled pumps. instead of having two connected shafts
close-coupled pumps have a single shaft that extends from the motor to the pump
body. The impellers, mechanical seals are all mounted on the motor shaft. ”

How to select between Positive

Displacement and Centrifugal pump

These two types of pumps behave very differently. We can see that by looking at the
performance chart of these pump
The centrifugal pump has a varying flow which depends on pressure or head, whereas
the Positive displacement pump has constant flow regardless of pressure.

This chart shows the effect of viscosity on the flow rate. As we can see from the chart as
the viscosity of fluid that is pumped is increased the flow rate of the centrifugal pump
decreases, whereas for the positive displacement pump flow rate almost remains
constant.
These pumps behave very differently when their mechanical efficiency is compared. By
looking at the chart we can see the impact of change in pressure on the efficiency of two
pumps . The changes in pressure have little effect on the Positive displacement pump but a
huge effect on the centrifugal pump.
One More thing to keep in mind when comparing the pumps is that the centrifugal pump
works best on the peak of the curve whereas the positive displacement pump can work on
any point of the curver and will give almost the same output throughout.

● The most common reason to select a Positive displacement pump is to pump a fluid
of high viscosity at low fluid flow
● The Most common reason to select a centrifugal pump is to pump fluid of low
viscosity. The centrifugal pump becomes less efficient even at moderate viscosity.
● If the application has variable pressure conditions then positive displacement pumps
will be used. The centrifugal pump does not work well in variable pressure conditions
as the efficiency and flow keeps moving up and down on the curve. The positive
displacement pump will provide almost a constant flow as per the process
requirement
● If there is change in viscosity in the application positive displacement pump should
be as we have seen from the viscosity chart above slight change in viscosity has a
huge effect on the centrifugal pump
Applications specific to positive displacement pumps are

Positive displacement pumps are used where you need precise flow control. For example
in petrol pumps, where they use different types of positive displacement pumps such as
gear pumps, diaphragm pumps etc.

Applications specific to Centrifugal Pumps are

● Oil & Energy - pumping crude oil, slurry, mud. Used by refineries, power generation
plants
● Industrial & Fire Protection Industry - Heating and ventilation, boiler feed
applications, air conditioning, pressure boosting, fire protection sprinkler systems.
● Waste Management, Agriculture & Manufacturing - Wastewater processing
plants, municipal industry, drainage, gas processing, irrigation, and flood protection
● Pharmaceutical, Chemical & Food Industries - Paints, petrochemical, sugar
refining, food and beverage production
 HEAT EXCHANGER
Heat exchanger is a heat transfer device designed to exchange heat between two or more
process fluids of different temperatures. The heat transfer process can be a liquid-liquid,
gas-liquid or a gas-gas and it occurs through a separator which prevents the two fluids from
mixing. Heat exchanger is used in both heating and cooling processes. They are generally
used in
● Petrochemical plants
● Petroleum refinery
● Natural gas processing
● Sewage treatment
● Refrigeration
● Air Conditioning
● Chemical plants
● Power plants

Type of heat exchangers

Heats exchangers can be classified and categorised in several different ways on the basis
of their design characteristics. The main characteristics by which heat exchangers can be
categorized are:
● Flow configuration
● Construction method
● Heat transfer mechanism

Flow configuration:
Classification is done on the basis of direction of movement of the fluid within the heat
exchanger. There are mainly four flow arrangements in a heat exchanger which are:

1) Concurrent flow - fluid flows parallel and in the same direction.

2) Counter flow - fluid flows parallel but in opposite directions.
3) Cross flow - fluid flows perpendicular to each other.
 4) Hybrid flow - they have a combination of different flow processes mentioned
before.

Construction method:
In this the heat exchangers are categorised on the basis of their construction. The
construction characteristics by which heat exchangers are classified are:

1) Recuperative vs. Regenerative

In recuperative heat exchangers the fluid flows through its own channel within the
exchanger. In regenerative heat exchangers the hot and cold fluid flows through the
same channel.

2) Direct vs. indirect

Recuperative heat exchangers have either direct or indirect contact transfer
processes. In direct contact heat exchangers, heat transfers from one fluid to
another through direct contact. On the other hand, in indirect heat exchangers, the
fluids remain separated from one another by thermally conductive parts, such as
tubes or plates, throughout the heat transfer process.

3) Static vs. dynamic

The two main types of regenerative heat exchangers are static and dynamic.
In static regenerative the heat exchanger component and material remain stationary
as the fluid flows through it. In dynamic regenerative heat exchangers the
components and material move throughout the heat transfer process.

4) Type of component and material used

 A wide range of material and components are used for the construction of heat
exchangers. Some of the common components used to construct heat exchangers
include shells, tubes, spiral tubes, plates, fins, and adiabatic wheels. Metals are
highly suitable as construction material due to its high thermal conductivity as in the
case of copper, titanium, stainless steel heat exchangers.

Heat transfer mechanism

There are two types of heat exchanger mechanism employed heat exchange - single phase
and two phase heat transfer.
1) Single phase heat transfer
In a single phase heat transfer mechanism the fluid does not undergo any phase
change during the heat transfer process. That is both the warmer and colder fluid
remain in the same state of matter in which they entered.
2) Two phase heat transfer
In two phase heat transfer mechanisms the fluid undergoes phase change during
the heat transfer process. The phase change can occur in either or both fluids which
are involved in heat exchanger.

Based on the above design characteristics, there are different types of heat exchanger
available industries which are:

1. Shell and tube heat exchangers

2. Double pipe heat exchangers
3. Plate heat exchangers
4. Condensers, evaporators, and boilers

Shell and tube heat exchanger

Shell and tube heat exchanger is a type of device which puts two working fluids in thermal
contact using tubes housed in an outer cylindrical shell. These fundamental pathways
should be made of thermal conductive material to transfer the heat. It is designed in such a
way that the tubes carry the fluid from inlet to the outlet and the shell passes a different
fluid around the tube. The number of tubes and the surface area exposed to the shell flow
side determine the amount of heat transfer. Shell and tube heat exchangers are one the
most efficient types of heat exchangers. They are easy to build, easy to maintain, compact.
And provides a good amount of heat transfer. They are used in industries as condenser,
turbine coolers,evaporators, feed water, preheater and many other processes.
The shell and tube exchanger consists of four major parts:
● Front end–this is where the fluid enters the tube side of the exchanger.
● Rear end–this is where the tube side fluid leaves the exchanger or where it is
returned to the front header in exchangers with multiple tubeside passes.
● Tube bundle–this comprises the tubes, tube sheets, baffles and tie rods etc. to hold
the bundle together.
● Shell—this contains the tube bundle.
●

The above shown figure of shell and tube heat exchanger shows two inlet and two outlet
ecat for shell and tube. Each fluid starts at its inlet and exits at the outlet. The shell fluid
starts at its inlet and flows around the tubes and exits through the shell outlet.
The flow inside the tube is turbulent to prevent the sedimentation in the tube and to
increase the heat transfer capacity. Turbulence is also caused in the shell by the use of
baffles. The shell side fluid should work its way through the baffles which causes the fluid to
 repeatedly flow over around the cooling tubes. This type of heat exchanger can be single
phase or two phase. They can also be single pass or multi pass, which describes how
many times the tube-side/shell-side flows pass through the device. The above figure shows
a multi-pass configuration, where the shell-side flow passes over the coolant pipes multiple
times before exiting through its outlet. If the baffles were not present then the heat
exchanger would be considered a single pass device, as both the tube-side flow and shell-
side flow only pass each other a single time.

Types of shell and tube heat exchangers

The standard types of shell and tube heat exchangers are regulated by the Tubular
Exchangers Manufacturers Association or TEMA. They split all heat exchanger designs into
three main parts: the front end header, the shell, and the rear end header, and designate
them with letters. There are the three most popular models. These three types are the
● U-tube heat exchanger
● Fixed tube sheet heat exchanger
● Floating head heat exchangers

1. U-tube heat exchanger

 In this type of heat exchangers the tube bundles are made up of continuous tubes bend into
a U shape, these tubes are secured to the shell with the help of a tube plate shown in the
above figure. In this the coolant flows from the top half of the header, through the U shaped
tubes and out to the bottom half of the header. This makes this type of heat exchanger a
multi-pass heat exchanger. These bendsallow the thermal expansion as the bend side is
free-floating in the shell and has room to expand or contract. These are mostly used when
dealing with high temperature fluid to accommodate for the expansion. The major downside
of such a heat exchanger is that the bends are hard to clean.

2. Fixed tube heat exchanger.

The fixed tube sheet heat exchanger uses two stationary tube sheets which are directly
welded to the shell. These types of heat exchangers are easy to manufacture and are very
cost efficient. However, the tubes are rigidly fixed to the shell so it does not give any room
for expansion when the temperature difference between the tube side and shell side flow is
more, which can lead to damage.so the temperature difference must be kept small. In
these types of heat exchangers the outside of the tubes cannot be clean. So shell fluid
should be used which does not foul the outer side of the tubes or the efficiency will
decrease.

3. Floating head heat exchanger

The floating head exchanger combines the best aspects of both U-tube heat exchanger and
the fixed tube heat exchanger. One end of the tubes is held stationary to the housing with a
fixed tubesheet, but the other side is free to expand using a component known as a floating
tubesheet. This part allows the tubes to expand freely without the need to bend the tubes.
In this the tubes can be cleaned easily and high temperature differences can be maintained
without any fear to damage the heat exchanger. Therefore a floating head heat exchanger
has the best heat transfer capacity, efficiency and is easy to maintain. But its cost is high.
★ The main components of a shell and tube exchanger are shown in figure below
where (a) is fixed tube heat exchanger, (b) is U-tube heat exchanger and (c) is
floating head heat exchange. The Labeled components are described below in the
table.

1 Stationary (Front) Head—Channel 20 Slip-on Backing Flange

2 Stationary (Front) Head—Bonnet 21 Floating Tubesheet Skirt
3 Stationary (Front) Head Flange 22 Floating Tubesheet Skirt
4 Channel Cover 23 Packing Box Flange
5 Stationary Head Nozzle 24 Packing
6 Stationary Tubesheet 25 Packing Follower Ring
7 Tubes 26 Lantern Ring
8 Shell 27 Tie Rods and Spacers
9 Shell Cover 28 Transverse Baffles or Support
Plates
10 Shell Flange—Stationary Head 29 Impingement Baffle or Plate
End
11 Shell Flange—Rear Head End 30 Longitudinal Baffle
12 Shell Nozzle 31 Pass Partition
13 Shell Cover Flange 32 Vent Connection
14 Expansion Joint 33 Drain Connection
15 Floating Tubesheet 34 Instrument Connection
16 Floating Head Cover 35 Support Saddle
17 Floating Head Flange 36 Lifting Lug
18 Floating Head Backing Device 37 Support Bracket
19 Split Shear Ring
TEMA classification of heat exchanger
Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association is an association of fabrication of shell and
tube heat exchangers. TEMA has made and maintained a set of construction standards for
construction of heat exchangers.
TEMA Standards are divided into ten sections:

1. Nomenclature
2. Fabrication Tolerances
3. General Fabrication and Performance Information
4. Installation, Operation, and Maintenance
5. Mechanical Standards TEMA Class RCB Heat Exchangers
6. Flow Induced Vibration
7. Thermal Relations
8. Physical Properties of Fluids
9. General Information
10. Recommended Good Practice

These standards classifies heat exchangers into 3 classes of heat exchanger construction
which are-

1. Class R - used is for the generally severe requirements of petroleum and related
processing applications.
2. Class C - is used for generally moderate requirements for commercial and general
process applications.
3. Class B - used for chemical process service.

TEMA nomenclature
In this system, each heat exchanger is designated by a combination of three-letters, the
first letter indicating the front-end head type, the second the shell type, and the third the
rear-end head type. Some common shell-and-tube exchangers are AES, BEM, AEP.
The figure below illustrates the full TEMA nomenclature.
A-Type front header
It has two seals (one between the tube sheet and header and the other between the header
and the end plate). This increases the risk of leakage and the cost of the header over a B-
Type Front Header. This type of header is easy to repair and replace. It also gives access
to the tubes for cleaning or repair without having to disturb the pipe work.
B-Type front header
This is the cheapest type of front header. It also is more suitable than the A-Type Front
Header for high pressure duties because the header has only one seal. A disadvantage is
that to gain access to the tubes requires disturbance to the pipe work in order to remove the
header.
C-Type front header
This type of header is for high pressure applications (>100 bar). It does allow access to the
tube without disturbing the pipe work but is difficult to repair and replace because the tube
bundle is an integral part of the header.
D-Type front header
This is the most expensive type of front header. It is for very high pressures (> 150 bar). It
does allow access to the tubes without disturbing the pipe work but is difficult to repair and
replace because the tube bundle is an integral part of the header.
N-Type front header
The advantage of this type of header is that the tubes can be accessed without disturbing
the pipe work and it is cheaper than an A-Type Front Header. However, they are difficult to
maintain and replace as the header and tube sheet are an integral part of the shell.
Y-Type front header
Strictly speaking this is not a TEMA designated type but is generally recognized. It can be
used as a front or rear header and is used when the exchanger is to be used in a pipe line.
It is cheaper than other types of headers as it reduces piping costs. It is mainly used with
single tube pass units although with suitable partitioning any odd number of passes can be
allowed.
E-Type shell
This is the most commonly used shell type, suitable for most duties and applications. Other
shell types only tend to be used for special duties or applications.
F-Type shell
This is generally used when pure countercurrent flow is required in a two tube side pass
unit. This is achieved by having two shells side passes—the two passes being separated by
a longitudinal baffle. The main problem with this type of unit is thermal and hydraulic
leakage across this longitudinal baffle unless special precautions are taken.
G-Type shell
This is used for horizontal thermosyphon reboilers and applications where the shellside
pressure drop needs to be kept small. This is achieved by splitting the shellside flow.
H-Type shell
This is used for similar applications to G-Type Shell but tends to be used when larger units
are required.
J-Type shell
This tends to be used when the maximum allowable pressure drop is exceeded in an E-
Type Shell even when double segmental baffles are used. It is also used when tube
vibration is a problem. The divided flow on the shellside reduces the flow velocities over the
tubes and hence reduces the pressure drop and the likelihood of tube vibration. When there
are two inlet nozzles and one outlet nozzle this is sometimes referred to as an I-Type Shell.
K-Type shell
This is used only for reboilers to provide a large disengagement space in order to minimize
shellside liquid carry over. Alternatively a K-Type Shell may be used as a chiller. In this
case the main process is to cool the tube side fluid by boiling a fluid on the shellside.
X-Type shell
This is used if the maximum shellside pressure drop is exceeded by all other shell and
baffle type combinations. The main applications are shellside condensers and gas coolers.
L-Type rear header
This type of header is for use with fixed tubesheets only, since the tubesheet is welded to
the shell and access to the outside of the tubes is not possible. The main advantages of this
type of header are that access can be gained to the inside of the tubes without having to
remove any pipework and the bundle to shell clearances are small. The main disadvantage
is that a bellows or an expansion roll are required to allow for large thermal expansions and
this limits the permitted operating temperature and pressure.
M-Type rear header
This type of header is similar to the L-Type Rear Header but it is slightly cheaper. However,
the header has to be removed to gain access to the inside of the tubes. Again, special
measures have to be taken to cope with large thermal expansions and this limits the
permitted operating temperature and pressure.
N-Type rear header
The advantage of this type of header is that the tubes can be accessed without disturbing
the pipe work. However, they are difficult to maintain and replace since the header and tube
sheet are an integral part of the shell.
P-Type rear header
This is an outside packed floating rear header. It is, in theory, a low cost floating head
design which allows access to the inside of the tubes for cleaning and also allows the
bundle to be removed for cleaning. The main problems with this type of header are:
● large bundle to shell clearances required in order to pull the bundle;
● it is limited to low pressure non hazardous fluids, because it is possible for the
shellside fluid to leak via the packing rings;
● only small thermal expansions are permitted.
In practice it is not a low cost design, because the shell has to be rolled to small tolerances
for the packing to be effective.
S-Type rear header
This is a floating rear header with backing device. It is the most expensive of the floating
head types but does allow the bundle to be removed and unlimited thermal expansion is
possible. It also has smaller shell to bundle clearances than the other floating head types.
However, it is difficult to dismantle for bundle pulling and the shell diameter and bundle to
shell clearances are larger than for fixed head type exchangers.
T-Type rear header
This is a pull through floating head. It is cheaper and easier to remove the bundle than with
the S-Type Rear Header, but still allows for unlimited thermal expansion. It does, however,
have the largest bundle to shell clearance of all the floating head types and is more
expensive than fixed header and U-tube types.
U-tube
This is the cheapest of all removable bundle designs, but is generally slightly more
expensive than a fixed tubesheet design at low pressures. However, it permits unlimited
thermal expansion, allows the bundle to be removed to clean the outside of the tubes, has
the tightest bundle to shell clearances and is the simplest design. A disadvantage of the U-
tube design is that it cannot normally have pure counterflow unless an F-Type Shell is used.
Also, U-tube designs are limited to even numbers of tube passes.
W-Type rear header
This is a packed floating tubesheet with lantern ring. It is the cheapest of the floating head
designs, allows for unlimited thermal expansion and allows the tube bundle to be removed
for cleaning. The main problems with this type of head are:
● the large bundle to shell clearances required to pull the bundle and;
● the limitation to low pressure nonhazardous fluids (because it is possible for both the
fluids to leak via the packing rings).

Shell selection
E-type shells are the most common. If a single tube pass is used and provided there are
more than three baffles, then near counter-current flow is achieved. If two or more tube
passes are used, then it is not possible to obtain pure countercurrent flow and the log mean
temperature difference must be corrected to allow for combined cocurrent and
countercurrent flow using an F-factor.
G-type shells and H shells are normally specified only for horizontal thermosyphon
reboilers. J shells and X-type shells should be selected if the allowable DP cannot be
accommodated in a reasonable E-type design. For services requiring multiple shells with
removable bundles, F-type shells can offer significant savings and should always be
considered provided they are not prohibited by customer specifications
Front header selection
The A-type front header is the standard for dirty tubeside fluids and the B-type is the
standard for clean tubeside fluids. The A-type is also preferred by many operators
regardless of the cleanliness of the tubeside fluid in case access to the tubes is required.
Do not use other types unless the following considerations apply.
A C-type head with removable shell should be considered for hazardous tubeside fluids,
heavy bundles or services requiring frequent shellside cleaning. The N-type head is used
when hazardous fluids are on the tubeside. A D-type head or a B-type head welded to the
tubesheet is used for high pressure applications. Y-type heads are only normally used for
single tube-pass exchangers when they are installed in line with a pipeline.
Rear header selection
For normal service a Fixed Header (L, M, N-types) can be used provided that there is no
overstressing due to differential expansion and the shellside will not require mechanical
cleaning. If thermal expansion is likely a fixed header with a bellows can be used provided
that the shellside fluid is not hazardous, the shellside pressure does not exceed 35 bar (500
psia) and the shellside will not require mechanical cleaning.
A U-tube unit can be used to overcome thermal expansion problems and allow the bundle
to be removed for cleaning. However, countercurrent flow can only be achieved by using an
F-type shell and mechanical cleaning of the tubeside can be difficult.
An S-type floating head should be used when thermal expansion needs to be allowed for
and access to both sides of the exchanger is required from cleaning. Other rear head types
would not normally be considered except for the special cases.

How shell and tube fluid is decided

Some General rules for deciding shell and tube fluids are listed below. These rules should
not be followed blindly,the design of shell and tube heat exchangers should be considered.

● Thicker metal walls should contain high-pressure fluids. Fluids at extreme pressures
are best placed on the tube side because of the increased metal thickness. The
metal thickness on the tube side has a higher pressure-rating than the same metal
thickness on the shell. If the shell side needs to be designed to accommodate high
pressure, the wall thickness will increase, making the design uneconomical. Building
thicker metal tubes requires lesser materials than building a thicker metal shell.
● It is easier to keep velocities higher in the tubeside. This is good for services that
demand a consistently high velocity, like cooling water
● For maintenance, it is easier to clean the tubeside than the shellside. Sometimes you
can just open the head of the exchanger and hydroblast each tube, instead of having
to remove the entire tube bundle to get at the shell. Also the inside of tubes is an
easier surface to deal with then the complex surface of the tube bundle outsides and
shell insides. Often only chemical cleaning can be reasonably performed on the
shellside. Therefore, the maintenance department would prefer that any
fouling/viscous/solid-carrying/dirty streams go into the tubeside
● The shellside tends to be preferred for services with phase changes
● Finned tubes can be used to increase the effective surface area the shell-side fluid
sees, letting you increase the heat transfer effectiveness on this side
● There are more variables we can adjust with in the shell side, allowing us more
options to deal with high pressure drops or low heat transfer co-efficients and to
more precisely target certain values. For example, tube baffle support spacing can
be changed in small increments. This flexibility tends to favor putting the fluid
with poor heat transfer properties on the shellside. With the tubeside usually all
we can do is alter the number of tube passes to an even number (2, 4, 6, etc.).
Going from 2 to 4 passes will roughly double the velocity and increase the
pressure drop by a factor of eight. (ΔP is proportional to Length and to Velocity
squared, and doubling the tube passes doubles both L and V values)
 ● Twisted tubes or tube inserts can be used to overcome laminar flow in the
tubeside and provide an extra “variable” for use. However, these tend to be
rare/proprietary technologies and more research is required to find one that will
work reliably for your service
● Critical fluids such as corrosive, lethal or expensive fluids should be positively
contained to prevent leaks. This means that certain heat exchanger designs or
TEMA types, which feature gaskets or floating heads, are not suitable for shellside
service. (Conversely, all-welded exchangers could be suitable putting the critical
fluid into for shellside service, assuming you remember that the shellside is more
difficult to clean)

Boiler
Boiler is a closed vessel in which water is heated until it converts into steam at a required
pressure. The boiler is essentially a closed vessel inside which water is stored. Fuel is burnt
in a furnace and hot gasses are produced. These hot gasses come in contact with water
vessels where the heat of these hot gases transfer to the water and consequently steam is
produced.
There are many different types of boilers available for different applications like running a
power plant, sanitizing some area, sterilizing equipment, to warm up the surroundings etc.

Types of boilers

According to the location of water and hot gas boilers are classified into following types.

● Fire tube boiler- a boiler in which hot combustion gasses passes through the hot
tubes which is surrounded by water. Example Locomotive boilers, Lancashire,
Cochran etc
● Water tube boilers- a boiler in which the water flows through the boiler tube
surrounded by hot combustion gasses. Example Babcock and Wilcox, Sterling,
Benson boiler, ect.

According to the water circulation in boilers the boilers are classified into following types.

● Natural circulation - water circulates in the boiler due to the density difference of hot
and cold water. E.g Babcock and Wilcox, Locomotive and Lancashire boilers.
● Forced circulation - in this a waterpump forces the water along its path therefore the
stem production rate increases. E.g., Benson, Velox boilers.

According to the position of the furnace the boilers are classified into following types.
 ● Internally fired - in this the furnace is located inside the shell of the boiler. E.g.,
Cochran, Lancashire boilers.
● Externally fired - in this thefurnance is located outside of the boiler. E.g., Stirling,
Babcock and Wilcox boilers.

According to the use of boilers they are classified into the following types.

● Stationary boiler
● Portable boiler
● Locomotive boiler
● Marine boilers

According to the position of the boiler they are classified into the following types.

● Horizontal boilers
● Inclined boilers
● Vertical boilers

Condenser
Condenser is a heat exchanging device used to condense a substance from steam to its
liquid state by cooling. The heatform the vapour/gasses is first removed by the wall of the
condenser tube, then the heat is transferred from the tube to the surrounding or to the
cooling medium. The size of a condenser canvarry from a handheld to a large scale
industrial unit. The selection of the condenser depends on the application, type of gas to be
condensed and type of cooling medium.

Classification of condenser

According to the condensing medium used condensers are classified into

● Air cooled condenser - Air is used as a condensing medium, It is the easiest

arrangement.
 ● Water cooled condenser: Water is used for the removal of heat Water cooled
condenser is the most efficient

● Evaporative condenser: Both air and water are used as condensing medium.

According the contact between condensate and condensing medium they are classified
into-

● Jet condenser mixing type condenser Also called direct contact condenser.
There is direct contact /mixing between condensate and condensing medium

● Surface condenser/ non-mixing type condenser Also called indirect contact

condenser. There is no contact between the condensate and condensing medium,
there is a barrier wall between them.

According to condensing medium flow they are classified into-

● Natural convection condenser the movement of the condensing medium is

completely by the natural convection.

● Forced convection condenser the condensing medium is forced to flow through

the condenser by the means such as fans, pumps
Hydrotest procedures of Heat Exchangers.
● Prepare the Exchangers for hydro test by providing necessary blinds and venting
arrangements.
● If it is shell side pressure test, Open tube side channels for inspection of tube sheet
areas. Tubes and TTS welds shall be clean and dry.
● Minimum 2 calibrated pressure gauges shall be used for testing. The dial of the
gauges shall be positioned in such a way that they are clearly visible to the operator
controlling the pressure during the test. One of the pressure gauges shall be located
in the highest point. Pressure gauges used for testing shall have dial graduated over
range of double the intended test pressure.
● Minimum of one PSV shall be installed in the test loop to avoid accidental over
pressurizing. PSV set pressure shall be 105 % test pressure.
● Fill-up shell side with DM water and ensure water fills up fully by opening the vents.
● The metal temperature of the pressure parts shall not be lower than 17°C & not
higher than 50°C during pressure test.
● The test pressure shall not be applied until the vessel and the test fluid are at about
the same temperature.
● Gradually increase the pressure. For high test pressures, increase the pressure in
steps and hold the pressure for duration of 5 Minutes at each step at 50%, 60%,
70%, 80% and 90% of test pressures.
● Pressurization rate shall not be more than 0.5 Kg/cm2 per minute.
● Pressure shall be further increased until the hydrostatic test pressure is reached.
● Hold the test pressure until complete check of the Tube, Tube sheet, TTS joints &
shell pressure parts and at least for Minimum (1.0) one Hour.
● After complete inspection of all equipments, gradually depressurize the system from
the highest vent point. Complete gradual depressurization of the test pressure shall
be done in 1.5 Hr.
● Depressurization should not be more than 0.5 Kg/cm2 per minute.
● After depressurization, completely drain the water. Dry and carry out purging for
thorough removal of water as per the requirement
 VIBRATIONS

FUNDAMENTALS OF VIBRATION

Most of us are familiar with vibration; a vibrating object moves to and fro, back and
forth. A vibrating object oscillates. We experience many examples of vibration in
our daily lives. A pendulum set in motion vibrates. A plucked guitar string vibrates.
Vehicles driven on rough terrain vibrate, and geological activity can cause massive
vibrations in the form of earthquakes.

In industrial plants there is the kind of vibration we are concerned about: machine
vibration.

Machine Vibration

Machine vibration is simply the back and forth movement of machines or

machine components. Any component that moves back and forth or
oscillates is vibrating

Machine vibration can take various forms. A machine component may

vibrate over large or small distances, quickly or slowly, and with or without
perceptible sound or heat. Machine vibration can often be intentionally
designed and so have a functional purpose. (Not all kinds of machine
vibration are undesirable. For example, vibratory feeders, conveyors,
hoppers, sieves, surface finishers and compactors are often used in
industry.)

Almost all machine vibration is due to one or more of these causes:

(a) Repeating forces (b) Looseness (c) Resonance

(a) Repeating Forces

Repeating forces in machines are mostly due to the rotation of imbalanced,

misaligned, worn, or improperly driven machine components.

Worn machine components exert a repeating force on machine components due to

rubbing of uneven worn parts. Wear in roller bearings, gears and belts is often due to
improper mounting, poor lubrication, manufacturing defects and over loading.

Improperly driven machine components exert repeating forces on machine due to

intermittent power supply. Examples include pump receiving air in pulses, IC engines
with misfiring cylinders, and intermittent brush commutator contact in DC Motors.

b) Looseness

Looseness of machine parts causes a machine to vibrate. If parts become

loose, vibration that is normally of tolerable levels may become unrestrained
and excessive.

Looseness can cause vibrations in both rotating and non rotating machinery.

Looseness can be caused by excessive bearing clearances, loose mounting

bolts, mismatched parts, corrosion and cracked structures.
 c) Resonance
Machines tend to vibrate at certain oscillation rates. The oscillation rate at
which a machine tends to vibrate is called its natural oscillation rate. The
natural oscillation rate of a machine is the vibration rate most natural to the
machine, that is, the rate at which the machine 'prefers' to vibrate.

if a machine is 'pushed' by a repeating force with a rhythm matching the

natural oscillation rate of the machine? The machine will vibrate more and
more strongly due to the repeating force encouraging the machine to vibrate
at a rate it is most natural with. The machine will vibrate vigorously and
excessively, not only because it is doing so at a rate it 'prefers' but also
because it is receiving external aid to do so. A machine vibrating in such a
manner is said to be experiencing resonance. A repeating force causing
resonance may be small and may originate from the motion of a good
machine component. Such a mild repeating force would not be a problem until
it begins to cause resonance. Resonance, however, should always be avoided
as it causes rapid and severe damage.

Why Monitor Machine Vibration?

Monitoring the vibration characteristics of a machine gives us an

understanding of the 'health' condition of the machine. We can use this
information to detect problems that might be developing.

If we regularly monitor the conditions of machines we will find any problems

that might be developing, therefore we can correct the problems even as they
arise. In contrast, if we do not monitor machines to detect unwanted vibration
the machines are more likely to be operated until they break down.
Below we discuss some common problems that can be avoided by monitoring machine vibration

(a) Severe Machine Damage

(b) High Power Consumption

(c) Machine Unavailability

(d) Delayed Shipments

(e) Accumulation of Unfinished

Goods f) Unnecessary Maintenance

(g) Quality Problems h)

Bad Company Image

(i) Occupational Hazards

Types of Vibration Monitoring Parameters

PRINCIPLE

Vibration amplitude may be measured as a displacement, a velocity, or acceleration.

Vibration amplitude measurements may either be relative, or absolute. An absolute
vibration measurement is one that is relative to free space. Absolute vibration
measurements are made with seismic vibration transducers.

Displacement

Displacement measurement is the distance or amplitude displaced from a resting

position. The SI unit for distance is the meter (m), although common industrial
standards include mm and mils. Displacement
 vibration measurements are generally made using displacement eddy current
transducers.

Velocity

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with respect to change in time. The SI
unit for velocity is meters per second (m/s), although common industrial standards
include mm/s and inches/s. Velocity vibration measurements are generally made
using either swing coil velocity transducers or acceleration transducers with either an
internal or external integration circuit.

Acceleration

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to change in time. The SI
unit for acceleration is meters per second2 (m/s2), although the common industrial
standard is the g. Acceleration vibration measurements are generally made using
accelerometers.

Vibration Monitoring Sensors & Selections

Sensors & Sensor Selection:

In industry where rotating machinery is everywhere, the sounds made by engines

and compressors give operating and maintenance personnel first level indications
that things are OK. But that first level of just listening or thumping and listening is not
enough for the necessary predictive maintenance used for equipment costing into
the millions of dollars or supporting the operation of a production facility.

The second layer of vibration analysis provides predictive information on the existing
condition of the machinery, what problems may be developing, exactly what parts
may be on the way to failure, and when that failure is likely to occur. Now, you may
schedule repairs and have the necessary parts on hand. This predictive
maintenance saves money in faster, scheduled repairs and prevents failures that
are much more expensive in terms of repairs or lost production.
Applications

 Application of these vibration sensors, with their associated equipment,

provides effective reduction in overall operating costs of many industrial
plants. The damage to machinery the vibration analysis equipment prevents is
much more costly than the equipment and the lost production costs can
greatly overshadow the cost of equipment and testing.

 Predicting problems and serious damage before they occur offers a

tremendous advantage over not having or not using vibration analysis.

 Specific areas of application include any rotating machinery such as motors,

pumps, turbines, bearings, fans, and gears along with their balancing,
broken or bent parts, and shaft alignment.

 The vibration systems find application now in large systems such as

aircraft, automobile, and locomotives while they are in operation.

 Dynamic fluid flow systems such as pipelines, boilers, heat exchangers,

and even nuclear reactors use vibration analysis to find and interpret internal
problems.
VALVES

What is a valve?

A valve is a mechanical device which regulates either the flow or the pressure of the
fluid. Its function can be stopping or starting the flow, controlling flow rate, diverting
flow, preventing back flow, controlling pressure, or relieving pressure.

Basically, the valve is an assembly of a body with connection to the pipe and some
elements with a sealing functionality that are operated by an actuator. The valve can
be also complemented whit several devices such as position testers, transducers,
pressure regulators, etc.

Common Valves Used In PANIPAT REFINERY

Gate valve
Globe valve Ball
valve Butterfly
valve Plug valve
 1. Gate valve

Application In Refinery

Gate valves have an extended use in the petrochemical industry due to the
fact that they can work with metal-metal sealing.
They are used in clean flows.
When the valve is fully opened, the free valve area coincides with area of
the pipe, therefore the head lose of the valve is small.
Limitations

This valve is not recommended to regulate or throttling service since the

closure member could be eroded. Partially opened the valve can vibrate.

Opening and closing operations are slow. Due to the high friction wear their
use is not recommend their use in often required openings.

This valve requires big actuators which have difficult automation. They are not
easy to repair on site.

2. Ball valve

The ball valve has a spherical plug as a closure member. Seal on ball valves is
excellent, the ball contact circumferentially uniform the seat, which is usually made of
soft materials

Depending on the type of body the ball valve can be more or less easily maintained.
Drop pressure relative its hole size is low.

Application in Refinery
They are used in steam, water, oil, gas, air, corrosive fluids, and can also handle
slurries and dusty dry fluids. Abrasive and fibrous materials can damage the seats
and the ball surface.

Limitations

The seat material resistance of the ball valve limits the working temperature
and pressure of the valve. The seat is plastic or metal made.

Ball valves are mostly used in shutoff applications. They are not
recommended to be used in a partially open position for a long time under
conditions of a high pressure drop across the valve, thus the soft seat could
tend to flow through the orifice and block the valve movement.
3. Butterfly valve

The development of this type of valve has been more recent than other ones.
A major conviction on saving energy in the installations was an advantage for
its introduction, due its head loss is small. At the beginning they were used in
low pressure installations service, but technologic improvements, especially in
the elastomer field let their extension to higher performances.

As any quarter turn valve, the operative of the butterfly valve is quiet easy.
The closure member is a disc that turns only 90º; to be fully open/close.
 Advantages

This is a quick operation. Few wear of the shaft, little friction and then less
torque needed means a cheaper actuator. The actuator can be manual, oleo
hydraulic or electrical motorized, with automation available.

Butterfly valves geometry is simple, compact and revolute, therefore it is a

cheap valve to manufacture either saving material and post mechanization. Its
reduced volume makes easy its installation. Gate and globe valves are
heavier and more complex geometry, therefore butterfly valve can result quiet
attractive at big sizes regarding other types of valves.

Application in Refinery

Butterfly valves are quite versatile ones. They can be used at multiples
industrial applications, fluid, sizes, pressures, temperatures and connections
at a relative low cost.

Butterfly valves can work with any kind of fluid, gas, liquid and also with solids
in suspension. As a difference from gate, globe or ball valves, there are not
cavities where solid can be deposit and difficult the valve operative.

Limitations

Pressure and temperature are determinant and correlated designing factors. At a

constant pressure, rising temperature means a lower performance for the valve,
since some materials have lower capacity. As well gate, globe and ball valves, the
butterfly valve can be manufactured with metallic seats that can perform at high
pressure and extreme temperatures.
 4. PLUG VALVE

Plug valves have a plug as a closure member. Plug can be cylindrical or

conical. Ball valves are considered as another group despite that they are
some kind of plug valve.

Plug valves are used in On/Off services and flow diverting, as they can be
multiport configured.

Advantages

They can hand fluids with solids in suspension.

Lift plug valve type are designed to rise the plug at start valve operation, in
order to separate and protect plug-seat sealing surfaces from abrasion

Limitations

It requires high maintenance cost Require

more time for maintenance

 5. GLOBE VALVE

A Globe valve may be constructed with a single or double port and plug
arrangement. The double port type is generally used in a CONTROL VALVE where
accurate control of fluid is required. Due to the double valve plug arrangement, the
internal pressure acts on each plug in opposition to each other, giving an internal
pressure balance across the plugs.

Advantages

This gives a much smoother operation of the valve and better control of the
process. Some control valves are 'Reverse Acting'. Where a valve normally
opens when the plug rises, in the reverse acting valve, the valve closes on
rising. The operation of the valve depends on process requirements. Also
depending on requirements, a control valve may be set to open or close, on
air failure to the diaphragm.
 The Globe valve is used where control of fluid flow or pressure is required and
it can be operated in any position between open and closed.

6. Non Returning Valve

A check valve may be defined simply as a mechanical device typically used to let
fluid, either in liquid or gas form, to flow through in one direction. They usually have
two ports or two openings – one for the fluid entry and the other for passing through
it. Often part of household items, they are generally small, simple, and inexpensive
components.

Operational Principal of Check Valve

Check valves are available with different spring rates to give particular cracking
pressures. The cracking pressure is that at which the check valve just opens. If a
specific cracking pressure is essential to the functioning of a circuit, it is usual to
show a spring on the check valve symbol. The pressure drop over the check valve
depends upon the flow rate; the higher the flow rate, the further the ball or poppet
has to move off its seat and so the

There are two main types of check valve :

1. The 'LIFT' type. (Spring loaded 'BALL' & 'PISTON' Types).

2. The 'SWING' (or Flapper Type).
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SAFETY VALVES

A safety valve is a valve mechanism which automatically releases a

substance from a boiler, pressure vessel, or other system, when the pressure
or temperature exceeds preset limits.

It is one of a set of pressure safety valves (PSV) or pressure relief valves

(PRV), which also includes relief valves, safety relief valves, pilot- operated
relief valves, low pressure safety valves, and vacuum pressure safety valves.

PRESSURE SAFETY VALVE OR RELIEF VALVE:

The relief valve (RV) is a type of valve used to control or limit

the pressure in a system or vessel which can build up by a process upset,
instrument or equipment failure, or fire.

Schematic diagram of a conventional

spring-loaded pressure relief valve.

The pressure is relieved by allowing the pressurized fluid to flow from an auxiliary
passage out of the system. The relief valve is designed or set to
open at a predetermined set pressure to protect pressure vessels and other
equipment from being subjected to pressures that exceed their design limits. When the
set pressure is exceeded, the relief valve becomes the " path of least resistance" as
the valve is forced open and a portion of the fluid is diverted through the auxiliary route.
The diverted fluid (liquid, gas or liquid–gas mixture) is usually routed through
a piping system known as a flare header or relief header to a central,
elevated flare where it is usually burned and the resulting combustion
gases are released to the atmosphere

It should be noted that PRVs and PSVs are not the same thing, despite what
many people think; the difference is that PSVs have a manual lever to open the
valve in case of emergency.

TEMPERATURE SAFETY VALVE:

Water heaters have thermostatically controlled devices that keep them

from overheating.
Both gas and electric water heaters have temperature-limiting devices that shut off
the energy source when their regular thermostat fails

Thermostatically controlled gas valves found on most residential gas water

heaters have a safety shutoff built into the gas valve itself. When they react to
excessive temperature, the gas flow to the burner is stopped.

PROTECTION USED IN INDUSTRY:

The two general types of protection encountered in industry are thermal protection
and flow protection.

For liquid-packed vessels, thermal relief valves are generally characterized by the
relatively small size of the valve necessary to provide protection from excess
pressure caused by thermal expansion. In this case a small valve is adequate
because most liquids are nearly incompressible, and so a relatively small amount of
fluid discharged through the relief valve will produce a substantial reduction in
pressure.

Flow protection is characterized by safety valves that are considerably larger

than those mounted for thermal protection. They are generally sized for use in
situations where significant quantities of gas or high volumes of liquid must be
quickly discharged in order to protect the integrity of the vessel or pipeline. This
protection can alternatively be achieved by installing a high integrity pressure
protection system (HIPPS).

APPLICATION:

1. Vacuum safety valves (or combined pressure/vacuum safety valves) are used
to prevent a tank from collapsing while it is being emptied, or when cold rinse
water is used after hot CIP (clean-in-place) or SIP (sterilization-in-place)
procedures.

2. Safety valves also evolved to protect equipment such as

pressure vessels (fired or not) and heat exchangers.

3. The term safety valve should be limited to compressible fluid

applications (gas, vapor, or steam).
4. Many fire engines have such relief valves to prevent the over
pressurization of fire hoses.

Valve Application Other information

Type
Ball Flow is on or off Easy to clean
Butterfly Good flow control at high Economical
capacities
Globe Good flow control Difficult to clean
Plug Extreme on/off situations More rugged, costly than ball
valve
 FINDINGS

For any academic discipline, especially practical streams like engineering field
knowledge should go hand in hand with theoretical knowledge. In university classes
our quest for knowledge is satisfied theoretically. Exposure to real field knowledge is
obtained during such vocational training. We have learnt a lot about pumps, safety
valves, flow control valves, compressors, machine vibrations and their analysis and
many more things of working in an industry. We might have thoroughly learnt the
theory behind these but practical knowledge about these were mostly limited to
samples at laboratory. At IOCL we actually saw the equipment used in industry.
Though the underlying principle remains same but there are differences as far as
practical designs are considered.

We also got to know additionally about other features not taught or known earlier.
This has helped to clarify our theoretical knowledge a lot. Apart from knowing about
matters restricted to our own discipline we also got to know some other things about
the processing of crude and manufacturing of various petrochemical products and
fuels which we might not have necessarily read within our curriculum. Such
vocational trainings, apart from boosting our knowledge give us some practical
insight into corporate sector and a feeling about the industry environment. The close
interactions with guides, many of whom are just some years seniors to us have also
helped us a lot. It is they who, apart from throwing light on equipment, have also
shown the different aspects and constraints of corporate life. Discussions with them
have not only satisfied our enquiries about machines and processes but also
enlightened about many other extracurricular concepts which are also important.
Thus, our training in IOCL has been a truly enlightening learning experience.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. IOCL Pump set datasheet

2. http://www.blackmersmartenergy.com/comparativedata/centr ifugal-
pumps-vs-positive-displacement-pumps.html

3. http://www.pumpschool.com

4. http://www.pumpscout.com

5. http://www.webbpump.com/

6. http://water.me.vccs.edu/

7. http://valveproducts.net/industrial-valves

8. https://controls.engin.umich.edu/wiki/index.php/ValveTypesS election

9. http://www.wermac.org/valves/valves_ball.html

http://www.iklimnet.com/expert_hvac/valves.html

10. Fundamentals of Vibrations by FM-Shinkawa