IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 63, NO.
5, MAY 2016
Equivalent Noise Source: An Effective Method
for Analyzing Common-Mode Noise
in Isolated Power Converters
Lihong Xie, Xinbo Ruan, Fellow, IEEE, and Zhihong Ye, Member, IEEE
Abstract—The interwinding capacitance of the trans-
former and the primary-side circuit nodes to ground capac-
itance are critical coupling path for common-mode (CM)
noise in isolated power converters. In order to analyze
the CM noise, the transformer interwinding capacitance is
usually equivalent to lumped capacitance. In this paper,
a generalized lumped capacitance model for construct-
ing the CM noise equivalent circuit that is valid at low
frequencies is derived. By simplifying the CM noise equiv-
alent circuit based on Thevenin’s theorem, the equivalent
noise source (ENS) for CM noise is proposed. The ENS
is expressed by a linear combination of voltages in the
converter, where the coefficients of these voltages are
determined by transformer winding structure and the cir-
cuit configuration. With the help of ENS, the CM noise of
the converter under different circuit configuration can be
systematically analyzed and conveniently compared, which
develops an effective reference for selecting a proper cir-
cuit configuration. Finally, the lumped capacitance model
and the ENS for CM noise are verified by the experimental
results.
Index Terms—Common-mode (CM) noise, equivalent
noise source (ENS), isolated power converter, lumped
capacitance model, transformer.
I. I NTRODUCTION
I SOLATED power converter has been widely used in the
applications where galvanic isolation and voltage match-
ing for the input and output sides are required. Due to the fast
switching action of the power devices, high di/dt and dv/dt
arises in the circuit, and thus the electromagnetic interference
(EMI) is generated. The common-mode (CM) EMI, which is
mainly caused by the displacement current flowing through the
high dv/dt nodes to the parasitic capacitances between these
nodes to ground [1]−[7], has gained wide concern.
Fig. 1 depicts the measurement of conducted EMI from iso-
lated power converter [8]. In the AC input applications, the
Manuscript received April 30, 2015; revised July 20, 2015, September
28, 2015, October 28, 2015, and November 25, 2015; accepted
December 20, 2015. Date of publication January 12, 2016; date of
current version April 8, 2016. This work was supported by Lite-On
Technology Corporation, Taipei, Taiwan.
L. Xie and X. Ruan are with the Center for More-Electric-
Aircraft Power Systems, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China (e-mail: xielihong@nuaa.edu.cn;
ruanxb@nuaa.edu.cn).
Z. Ye is with the Power SBG ATD-NJ R&D Center, Lite-On Technology
Corporation, Nanjing 210019, China (e-mail: Sam.Ye@liteon.com).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIE.2016.2517064
0278-0046 © 2016 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
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2913
isolated power converter is generally consisted of input rec-
tifier bridge, primary circuit, transformer, and secondary side
rectifier and filter. In Fig. 1, PG (SG) denotes the primary
(secondary) ground and PE denotes the protective earth. In
the three-wire input cases, SG is usually connected to PE for
the safety considerations [9]. The line impedance stabiliza-
tion network (LISN) provides a specified impedance (usually
50 Ω) at the testing terminals, which is required in the standard
conducted EMI measurement. The noise separator is used to
separate the CM and differential-mode (DM) noises [10]. The
EMI receiver scans the conducted EMI spectrum from 150 kHz
to 30 MHz according to the standard EN55022 class B [11].
In Fig. 1, the CM noise propagation path is drawn in dashed
line. Applying KCL for node J yields
2iCM = iCp1 + iCps (1)
where 2iCM is the current flowing through PE, iCp1 is the cur-
rent flowing through the parasitic capacitance Cp1 from the
primary-side circuit node to PE, and iCps is part of 2iCM .
Since the CM noise is associated with iCM , based on (1),
both iCp1 and iCps contribute to the CM noise. Note that the
displacement current iCs1 , which flows through the parasitic
capacitance Cs1 from the secondary-side circuit node to PE,
does not contribute to the CM noise. Since Cs1 is essentially
the parasitic capacitance of the secondary-side circuit when SG
is connected to PE, the current iCs1 is confined within the sec-
ondary side and does not flow back to the LISN. Furthermore,
according to the cutset between the transformer interwinding
capacitance and PE in Fig. 1, the displacement current that
flows through the interwinding capacitance Cps should be equal
to iCps , based on the current continuity principle. Therefore,
the parasitic capacitance from the primary-side circuit nodes
to PE and the interwinding capacitance of the transformer are
the critical propagation paths for CM noise in isolated power
converters [12]–[14].
Since the interwinding capacitance model is complex and
inconvenient for circuit analysis, the equivalent lumped capaci-
tance is usually adopted instead [9], [12], [15]–[19]. According
to the discussions above, it is straightforward to convert the
interwinding capacitance into lumped capacitance by keeping
the displacement current consistent with each other in order
to make the CM noise unchanged. Based on the displace-
ment current consistency rule, the CM noise of the flyback
converter, dual-switch forward converter, and LLC resonant
converter are discussed in [9], [12], and [18], respectively.
2914
Fig. 1. Diagram of the conducted EMI measurement and the CM noise
propagation path of isolated power converter [8].
By calculating the displacement current flowing through the
interwinding capacitance, the equivalent lumped capacitance is
obtained, and the CM noise equivalent circuit of each converter
is derived. In these papers, the displacement current is calcu-
lated for a specific transformer winding structure. In this paper,
the calculation of displacement current is further extended to
the transformer with a general winding structure, in order to
study the CM noise of the converter under different transformer
winding structures. As a result, the transformer winding struc-
ture is quantified and can be represented by three parameters.
Furthermore, the equivalent lumped capacitances for the trans-
former with a general winding structure have been derived,
based on the displacement current consistency rule.
It is also known that, besides the transformer winding struc-
ture, the main circuit parameters and configuration also influ-
ence the CM noise of isolated power converters. In brief, the
main circuit parameters determine the spectra of the noise
source [20], while the circuit configuration affects the elec-
tric potential of the transformer terminals and influences the
displacement current as a result [13], [21]. In this paper, by sim-
plifying the CM noise equivalent circuit constructed by lumped
capacitance based on the Thevenin’s theorem, the equivalent
noise source (ENS) for CM noise is proposed. The ENS is
expressed by a linear combination of voltages in the circuit,
where the coefficients of these voltages are determined by trans-
former winding structure and the circuit configuration. With
the help of ENS, the CM noise of the converter under differ-
ent transformer winding structure and circuit configuration can
be systematically analyzed and conveniently compared, which
develops an effective reference for selecting a proper circuit
configuration that generates lower CM noise.
II. C ALCULATION OF THE D ISPLACEMENT C URRENT
F LOWING T HROUGH T RANSFORMER I NTERWINDING
C APACITANCE
For the transformer with tightly wound windings, the dis-
placement current can flow between every two adjacent layers
(the turn-to-turn distances of each layer are very small, which
prevents the electric field from penetrating one of these layers
[13]), as well as the outmost and innermost layer of windings
via the core [9]. Among these currents, only the displacement
current that flows through the primary and secondary layers of
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 63, NO. 5, MAY 2016
Fig. 2. Transformer (a) with interwinding capacitance via the core and
(b) without interwinding capacitance via the core.
Fig. 3. Transformer structure and the dimension of windings.
windings contributes to the CM noise, hence the characteristics
of interwinding capacitance between layers are reviewed in
Section II-A.
In order to calculate the displacement current flowing
through the interwinding capacitances, the current that flows
between every pair of layers in the primary and secondary
windings should be calculated and then added together. As a
simple but important case, the current flowing through single
layer of primary and secondary windings will be calculated in
Section II-B. Section II-C deals with the displacement current
calculation in a general case.
A. Characteristics of Interwinding Capacitances
For the transformer winding structure shown in Fig. 2(a),
there is interwinding capacitance between Wp1 and Ws1 , Ws1
and Wp2 , Wp2 and Ws2 , as well as Wp1 (Ws2 ) and core. Since
the impedance of the core is much smaller than the winding-to-
core capacitances [9], these two capacitances are in series and
the interwinding capacitance between Wp1 and Ws2 is created.
For the transformer winding structure shown in Fig. 2(b), there
is electric coupling between Wp1 and Ws1 , Wp2 and Ws2 . On
the contrary, the interwinding capacitance between the primary
and secondary layers of winding via the core can be ignored,
since the capacitances between the core and the secondary
windings are very small.
B. Single Layer of Primary and Secondary Windings
Fig. 3 shows the transformer with single layer of tightly
wound primary and secondary windings. In this configuration,
a cylindrical capacitor from the primary to secondary winding
is formed, which is commonly named as the structural capac-
itance. For the winding dimension shown in Fig. 3, h denotes
XIE et al.: ENS: EFFECTIVE METHOD FOR ANALYZING CM NOISE IN ISOLATED POWER CONVERTERS 2915

Fig. 5. ith pair of transformer primary and secondary windings with

Fig. 4. Primary windings: (a) winding structure and (b) electric potential electric coupling.
along the windings [8].

add the displacement current together. Suppose that the inter-

the height of the winding, b (a) is the distance between the winding capacitance distributes evenly along the transformer
primary (secondary) winding and the axis of symmetry. When windings, hence the capacitance between the primary (sec-
the interval between two windings is very small compared ondary) winding with a unit length and the secondary (primary)
with the height of the winding, the structural capacitance C0 winding equals C0 /LAB (C0 /LCD ). Therefore, the current is
is approximately given by [17] obtained as
2πε0 εr h  LAB
C0 = , b − a << h (2) C0 d
ln (b/a) idis = (vP (lPB ) − 0) dlPB
0 L AB dt
 LCD
where 0 is the permittivity in the vacuum and r is the relative C0 d
+ (0 − vQ (lQD ))dlQD . (5)
permittivity of the dielectric between the windings. 0 LCD dt
In general, the structural capacitance is measured by LCR
meter. At first, the terminals of the primary (secondary) wind- Substituting (3) and (4) into (5) and simplifying the equation
ing are connected together, which turns the transformer into a yields
one-port component. Then, the capacitance across the one-port d 1 
component is measured using the LCR meter. idis = C0 2 (vA + vB ) − 12 (vC + vD )
dt
In order to calculate the displacement current flowing d
through the interwinding capacitance, the electric potential dis- = C0 (vCM_wp1 − vCM_ws1 ) (6)
dt
tribution of the windings needs to be considered, because the
displacement current is not uniformly distributed along the where vCM_wp1 and vCM_ws1 represent the averaged electric
windings [9], [12], [13]. For the primary winding shown in potential of the primary and secondary windings, respectively.
Fig. 4(a) [8], set the terminal B as the origin and the termi-
nal A as the end, and select any point P from the winding. The
C. General Winding Structure
length from P to B along the winding is denoted by lPB , and
the whole winding length from A to B is denoted by LAB . By Suppose that the electric coupling exists between n pairs
neglecting the leakage magnetic flux and ac resistance origi- of layers in the primary and secondary windings, and denote
nated from the skin effect and proximity effect on the windings, the total turns number of primary and secondary windings
it is assumed that the electric potential varies linearly along the as NP and NS , respectively. As shown in Fig. 5, for the ith
length of the windings. Based on this assumption, the electric pair (1 ≤ i ≤ n) of windings, Ci denotes the structural capac-
potential vP (lPB ) of P can be obtained, as shown in Fig. 4(b). itance between layer Wpi and Wsi , and the turns number from
vP (lPB )(0 ≤ lPB ≤ LAB ) is given by Pi_1 , Pi_2 to B (from Si_1 , Si_2 to D) are represented by NPi_1
and NPi_2 (NSi_1 and NSi_2 ). According to the linear variation
vA − vB of electric potential along the length of windings, the voltage
vP (lPB ) = lPB + vB . (3)
LAB drop of each turn of the windings is the same; hence, the electric
In terms of the secondary winding, select any point Q from potential of the following nodes are
the winding. The length from Q to D along the winding is ⎧ vA − vB vA − vB
⎪
⎨ vPi_1 = NPi_1 + vB , vPi_2 = NPi_2 + vB
denoted by lQD , and the whole winding length from C to D NP NP
is denoted by LCD . Likewise, vQ (lQD )is expressed by ⎩ vSi_1 = vC − vD NSi_1 + vD , vSi_2 = vC − vD NSi_2 + vD .
⎪
vC − vD NS NS
vQ (lQD ) = lQD + vD . (4) (7)
LCD
According to (6), the averaged electric potential of Wpi and
Superposition theory can be applied to calculate the displace-
Wsi layer equals the arithmetic average of the electric potential
ment current that flows through the interwinding capacitance
of Pi_1 and Pi_2 (Si_1 and Si_2 ), which are given by
[22]. First, set the electric potential of secondary winding
be zero, and calculate the displacement current generated by ⎧
⎪ 1
the primary winding. Second, set the electric potential of ⎨ vCM_wpi = (vPi_1 + vPi_2 ) = λpi vA + (1 − λpi ) vB
2 (8)
the primary winding be zero, and the displacement current ⎪
⎩ vCM_wsi = 1 (vSi_1 + vSi_2 ) = λsi vC + (1 − λsi ) vD
caused by the secondary winding can be obtained. Finally, 2

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2916 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 63, NO. 5, MAY 2016

where the coefficients λpi and λsi are

⎧
⎪
⎪ λpi =
1 NPi_1 + NPi_2
⎨ , 0 < λpi < 1
2 NP
(9)
⎪
⎪ 1 NSi_1 + NSi_2
⎩ λsi = , 0 < λsi < 1.
2 NS
Referring to (6), the displacement current that flows between
Wpi and Wsi is given by

d
idis_i = Ci (λpi vA + (1 − λpi ) vB )
dt
d
−Ci (λsi vC + (1 − λsi ) vD ) . (10) Fig. 6. Procedure for measuring Ci .
dt
By adding all the displacement current flowing through each
pair of windings, idis is obtained as
n
d
idis = idis_i = C0 (λA vA + (1 − λA ) vB )
i=1
dt
d
−C0 (λC vC + (1 − λC ) vD ) . (11) Fig. 7. Lumped capacitance of the transformer.
dt
Detailed formulas of C0 , λA , and λC are presented in the
following equations: is considered. Since CAB and CCD cannot generate the dis-
placement current flowing from the primary to secondary sides,
n
they are neglected in the following analysis. Setting the elec-
C0 = Ci (12a) tric potential of the transformer terminals as vA , vB , vC , and
i=1
n n
vD , respectively, the displacement current flowing through the
1 1 capacitance CAC , CAD , CBC , and CBD is given by
λA = λpi Ci , λC = λsi Ci . (12b)
C0 i=1 C0 i=1
d d
idis = CAC (vA − vC ) + CAD (vA − vD )
Here, C0 represents the structural capacitance of the trans- dt dt
former, which is equal to the sum of structural capacitance from d d
+ CBC (vB − vC ) + CBD (vB − vD )
each pair of windings; λA and λC are defined as the winding dt dt
structural parameter, which is determined by the transformer dvA dvB
= (CAC + CAD ) + (CBC + CBD )
winding structure and is in the range of (0, 1) according to (9) dt dt
and (12). In particular, for the transformer with single layer dvC dvD
− (CAC + CBC ) − (CAD + CBD ) . (13)
of primary and secondary windings, by comparing (11) with dt dt
(6), both λA and λC are equal to 0.5. [Owing to the evenly
By establishing an equality relationship between (11) and
distributed interwinding capacitance and symmetrical structure,
(13) based on the displacement current consistency rule, a set
the displacement current caused by a linearly distributed elec-
of linear algebraic equations can be obtained as
tric potential is equivalent to a uniformly distributed electric
potential, which is equal to the arithmetic average of vA and vB ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1100 CAC λA C0
(vC and vD ).] ⎜ 0 0 1 1 ⎟ ⎜ CAD ⎟ ⎜ (1 − λA ) C0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟.
Practically, the capacitance Ci between each pair of wind- ⎝ 1 0 1 0 ⎠ ⎝ CBC ⎠ = ⎝ λC C0 ⎠ (14)
ings cannot be directly measured one by one. Here, a flowchart 0101 CBD (1 − λC ) C0
that illustrates the key steps of determining the capacitance Ci
between each pair of windings is provided, as shown in Fig. 6. ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 1 0 0 λA C0
The principle of the measurement is that during the process of ⎜0 0 1 1⎟ ⎜ (1 − λA ) C0 ⎟
transformer manufacturing, when the ith pair of windings has Denoting AN = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 0 1 0 ⎠ D(C0 ) = ⎝
⎜ ⎟,
⎠
λC C0
been winded, the measured structural capacitance Cm (i) of the 0 1 0 1 (1 − λC ) C0
transformer will be increased by the structural capacitance Ci the consistency condition for (14) is given by
of that pair of windings.
 
.
rank (AN ) = rank AN ..D (C0 ) = 3. (15)
III. C ALCULATION OF L UMPED C APACITANCE
As shown in Fig. 7, the transformer lumped capacitance gen- As can be seen from (15), the rank of the coefficient matrix
erally consists of six capacitances when its capacitive effect and the augmented matrix is equal to 3, which is less than 4 (the

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XIE et al.: ENS: EFFECTIVE METHOD FOR ANALYZING CM NOISE IN ISOLATED POWER CONVERTERS
Fig. 8. CM noise circuit of flyback converter described by (a) interwind-
ing capacitance and (b) lumped capacitance.
number of variables). Hence, the solution of (14) exists, which
is expressed as
T Fig. 9. Simplified CM noise equivalent circuit.
(CAC , CAD , CBC , CBD )
T
= (C, λA C0 − C, λC C0 − C, (1 − λA − λC ) C0 + C)
where C is a free variable. According to (16), the solution for
lumped capacitance is not unique. So, any solution from (16)
can be used to construct the CM noise equivalent circuit.
IV. A PPLICATIONS OF THE L UMPED C APACITANCE
M ODEL
A. Simplified CM Noise Equivalent Circuit of Flyback
Converter
Fig. 8(a) shows the CM noise circuit of flyback converter
described by the interwinding capacitance. The 25 Ω resistor
is the equivalent impedance for CM noise at the LISN side,
and vCM denotes the measured voltage related with CM noise.
The switch Q is substituted with voltage source VQ that has
exactly the same voltage waveform as the switch, and the rec-
tifier diode Do is substituted with current source IDo to avoid
voltage loops. By replacing the interwinding capacitance with
its equivalent lumped capacitance based on (16) and substitut-
ing the transformer windings with a pair of controlled sources,
the CM noise equivalent circuit can be obtained, as shown in
Fig. 8(b).
Thevenin’s theorem is applied to simplify the network at the
right side of the 25 Ω resistor shown in Fig. 8(b). By replacing
VQ with short branch and IDo with open circuit, vAB = 0 and
the controlled voltage source nvAB across terminals C and D is
also 0; thus, four lumped capacitances and Cp are in parallel.
Therefore, the internal impedance of the network is equal to the
reactance of the total capacitance (the total capacitance equals
C0 + Cp ); then, superposition theorem is adopted to calculate
the open-circuit voltage. Fig. 9(a) and (b) shows the subcir-
cuit excited by VQ and IDo independently. The output voltage
coming from each subcircuit is given by
⎧   winding structure can be helpful for reducing the CM noise.
⎨ Voc1 = (1 − λA ) C0 + Cp − n λC C0
⎪
VQ
C0 + Cp C0 + Cp (17)
⎪
⎩ V = 0.
oc2
Based on the previous discussion, Fig. 9(c) gives the sim-
plified circuit of Fig. 8(b). Here, the free variable C does
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2917
(16)
not appear in the simplified circuit, which indicates that any
solution from (16) can be used.
B. ENS for CM Noise
In Fig. 9(c), since the dc component of Voc does not cause
CM noise, Voc can be replaced by its ac component voc ,
expressed as (18), where voc1 , voc2 , and vQ represent the ac
component of Voc1 , Voc2 , and VQ , respectively,
(1 − λA − nλC ) C0 + Cp
voc = voc1 + voc2 = vQ . (18)
C0 + Cp
Define Voc expressed in (18) as the ENS for CM noise of the
flyback converter, where vQ is determined by the main circuit
parameters, while the coefficient of vQ is related with the trans-
former winding structure and the parasitic capacitance Cp . For
a better understanding of (18), two special cases are reviewed.
1) Case 1: C0 << Cp : In this case, the ENS of the flyback
converter can be simplified to vQ , and the internal impedance
of the simplified CM noise circuit is approximately the reac-
tance of Cp . Therefore, the effect of parasitic capacitance Cp
on the CM noise is dominant, while the transformer interwind-
ing capacitance is less significant. Cancelling the displacement
current flowing through Cp makes sense in this situation [6].
2) Case 2: C0 >> Cp : In some applications, the heat
sinks are connected to the “hot” ground so that most of the
noise current can flow directly back to the circuits [9]. As a
result, the primary-side circuit nodes to PE capacitance can be
much smaller than the structural capacitance of the transformer.
When the interwinding capacitance is dominant, the ENS of
the flyback converter can be simplified to (1 − λA − nλC )vQ ,
and C0 approximately represents the internal impedance of the
CM noise circuit. In this case, the adjustment of transformer
For a certain transformer, if 1 − λA − nλC = 0, then voc = 0,
indicating that zero CM noise is achieved. Fig. 10 shows the
transformer winding structure that adopts the winding cancel-
lation method [9] for suppressing the CM noise. The Wp1 , Wp2 ,
and Wp3 layers of the primary winding use enameled wire,
while Wp4 layer of the primary winding uses copper foil with
2918 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 63, NO. 5, MAY 2016

Fig. 10. Transformer structure for the winding cancellation method.

proper height to cover the whole window height, for the pur-
pose of blocking the electric coupling between Wp3 and the
secondary winding Ws1 . In addition, the turns number of Wp4
is equal to that of Ws1 . The main coupling path for the dis-
placement current that flows through interwinding capacitance
is from Wp4 to Ws1 . According to (9) and (12), the transformer
structural parameter is calculated as
⎧  
⎪ 1 NP + (NP − NS ) 2−n Fig. 11. CM noise equivalent circuit of flyback converter described by
⎪ λ
⎨ A = C0 = (a) interwinding capacitance; (b) lumped capacitance; and (c) simplified
C0 2NP 2
  (19) circuit.
⎪
⎪ 1 NS + 0 1
⎩ λC = C0 = .
C0 2NS 2 circuit shown in Figs. 9(c) and 11(c), it can be determined that

From the ENS perspective, the coefficient 1 − λA − nλC = vCM and vCM have the following relationship, i.e.,
0 when (19) is substituted, which indicates the effectiveness of
(1 − λA − nλC ) C0 + Cp
this method. It should be noted that the windings are weakly vCM = v  = k · vCM

(21)
coupled for this winding structure compared with the inter- (1 − λA + n (1 − λC )) C0 + Cp CM
leaved winding structure. So, there is a tradeoff between the
where k is the coefficient determined by λA , λC , n, C0 , and Cp .
efficiency, voltage spike across the main switch, and the CM
Based on the linear property of Fourier transformation,
noise under these two winding structures. However, in some  
VCM (f ) and VCM (f ), which are the magnitude of vCM and vCM
other topologies, the interleaved winding structure can be used
in the frequency domain, respectively, are also proportional.
to reduce the CM noise, e.g., dual-switch forward converter
Since the measured noise level is plotted with decibel voltage
[12]. By controlling the parasitic capacitance and optimizing
against frequency, the theoretical noise spectra difference Δ is
the termination of windings in a transformer with interleaved
given by
windings, the noise cancellation can be achieved. These slight
    
but effective modifications will not significantly affect other  VCM (f )   
Δ = 20 lg   − 20 lg  VCM (f )  = 20 lg |k| (dB) .
specifications of the transformer. 1μV   1μV 
(22)
C. Effect of Diode Position on the CM Noise
Since λA and λC are in the range of (0, 1), based on (20),
The CM noise of the converter is not only affected by the the coefficient 1 − λA + n(1 − λC ) is always greater than zero.
main circuit parameters and transformer winding structure, but Therefore, the CM noise in the circuit shown in Fig. 11(a)
also affected by the circuit configuration [13], e.g., the position with any transformer winding structure cannot be reduced to
of power switches. As shown in Fig. 11(a), by moving down the zero, while the CM noise in the circuit shown in Fig. 8(a) can
diode Do to the return path of SG (it corresponds to the situation be eliminated if [1 − λA + n(1 − λC )]C0 + Cp = 0 based on
where simple gate driving circuit for the synchronous rectifier is (18). From this point of view, the circuit in Fig. 8(a) is a pre-
required), the operation of the circuit is not changed, while the ferred configuration in terms of the CM noise. As an extension,
CM noise will be different. The CM noise equivalent circuit for the preferred configurations of basic isolated power converters
this configuration is shown in Fig. 11(b). Referring to the previ- are provided in Section V.
ous analyzing method, Fig. 11(c) illustrates the simplified CM
noise circuit. The ENS for CM noise under this configuration is
given by V. P REFERRED C ONFIGURATION OF B ASIC I SOLATED
P OWER C ONVERTERS
 (1 − λA + n (1 − λC )) C0 + Cp
voc = vQ . (20) A preferred configuration of the forward converter with reset
C0 + Cp
circuit is shown in Fig. 12, where diode D1 and inductor Lf
Comparing (18) with (20), it is noted that the magnitudes are moved down to the return path. Following the previous

of voc and voc are proportional. By comparing the simplified analyzing method (the rule of substituting the power switches

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XIE et al.: ENS: EFFECTIVE METHOD FOR ANALYZING CM NOISE IN ISOLATED POWER CONVERTERS 2919

Fig. 12. Preferred configuration of the forward converter.

Fig. 14. Full-bridge converter (a) with phase-shift control and (b) electric
potential of the two terminals from the primary windings.

The full-bridge converter is illustrated in Fig. 14(a). When

the phase-shift control is adopted, the ac component of the volt-
age across the primary winding AB, Q3 , and Q4 are plotted
in Fig. 14(b). The ENS for CM noise is expressed by a linear
Fig. 13. Configuration of (a) push–pull converter and (b) half-bridge combination of vQ3 and vQ4 , i.e.,
converter.
((λA + n (1 − 2λC )) C0 + CpA )
into voltage or current sources is to obtain a CM noise equiva- voc_full-bridge = vQ3
C0 + CpA + CpB
lent circuit which is convenient for analyzing CM noise while
avoiding voltage source loops and current source nodes in (1 − (λA + n (1 − 2λC )) C0 + CpB )
+ vQ4 . (25)
the equivalent circuit [13]), the ENS for CM noise in this C0 + CpA + CpB
configuration is given by
From Fig. 14(b), vQ3 and vQ4 are linear independent when
(1 − λA − nλC ) C0 + Cp the phase-shift angle ϕ = 0 (it can be demonstrated that
voc_forward = vQ . (23)
C0 + Cp k1 vQ3 + k2 vQ4 = 0 if and only if k1 = k2 = 0, where k1 , k2
Owing to the similarity between (23) and (18), the CM noise is a real number). In order to make the ENS zero, the coeffi-
of the forward converter can be reduced by using the trans- cients of both vQ3 and vQ4 should be equal to 0. However, based
former winding structure shown in Fig. 9, provided that Cp is on (25), the sum of these two coefficients is always 1, indi-
far smaller than C0 . cating that zero ENS cannot be achieved for this converter by
For the push–pull converter and half-bridge converter shown simply adjusting the transformer winding structure. Therefore,
in Fig. 13, the preferred configuration is the same as the con- the technique for reducing the original CM noise generated by
ventional one. The ENS for the CM noise of each circuit is phase-shift full-bridge converter remains to be studied.
expressed as According to the discussions above, the formulas of the
ENS for basic isolated power converters with different circuit
(2λA − 1 + n (2λC − 1)) C0 + CpA − CpB configurations are listed in Table I.
voc_push-pull = vQ1
C0 + CpA + CpB
(24a)
(1 − λA + n (2λC − 1)) C0 + CpB VI. E XPERIMENT V ERIFICATION OF THE L UMPED
voc_half-bridge = vQ2 . (24b) C APACITANCE M ODEL
C0 + CpB
A. Transformer Without Shielding Layer
By making the coefficient zero to eliminate the CM noise, the
requirement for the transformer structural parameter λA and λC The transformer under test is illustrated in Fig. 15(a). The
can be obtained. The implementation of transformer winding primary winding uses 0.3 mm enameled wire with single strand
structure according to the required λA and λC is beyond the and covers one layer with 29 turns; the secondary winding
scope of this paper. uses 0.8 mm enameled wire with single strand and occupies

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2920
TABLE I
ENS F ORMULA FOR B ASIC I SOLATED P OWER C ONVERTERS W ITH
D IFFERENT C IRCUIT C ONFIGURATIONS
Fig. 15. Transformer structure and its connection during the measure-
ment.
one layer with 11 turns; the core uses RM 10. The structural
capacitance C0 is measured by LCR meter at 100 kHz, and
C0 = 38.23 pF. Owing to the single-layer structure, the wind-
ing structural parameter λA = λC = 0.5. By substituting them
into (16), the equivalent lumped capacitances are
C0
CAC = CBD = C, CAD = CBC = − C.
2 retical and measured curves match well up to 20 MHz, verifying
Fig. 15(b) illustrates the method for verifying the lumped
capacitance model [23]. This method mimics the generation of
CM noise in isolated converters through the transformer inter-
winding capacitance. By applying the excitation signal vAB to
port AB, the electric potential distribution along the windings
is established, and the displacement current idis is formed. In
addition, a 10 kΩ resistor R is connected to port BD. Since the
current crossing the interwinding capacitance and the resistor
are equal, the voltage vDB across R forms an indirect obser-
vation for the displacement current idis , which can be easily
detected and measured by experiment.
In order to acquire the relationship between vAB and vDB
in Fig. 15(b), the transformer windings are substituted with a
pair of controlled sources. In addition, a solution for lumped
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 63, NO. 5, MAY 2016
Fig. 16. Theoretical model for calculating the transfer function based on
the lumped capacitance model.
Fig. 17. Hardware setup and the connection of the transformer.
capacitance is substituted according to (26) (for the conve-
nience of calculating, CAC = CBD = C0 /2, CAD = CBC = 0
is used), as shown in Fig. 16. Note that the input impedance
of the probe used in the measurement is 10 MΩ resistance and
8 pF capacitance Cprobe in parallel, which may cause the load-
ing effect during the measurement. The 10 MΩ resistance can
be neglected, due to its large impedance compared with the
10 kΩ resistance. However, Cprobe must be considered, since it
is in the same order of magnitude as the transformer structural
capacitance C0 .
According to Fig. 16, the theoretical transfer function G1 (s)
from vAB to vDB is given by
vDB (s) (1 + n) sRC0
G1 (s) = = . (27)
vAB (s) 2 sR (C0 + Cprobe ) + 1
Agilent E5061B network analyzer is adopted to measure the
gain-phase curve of G1 (s) in the frequency range from 150 kHz
to 30 MHz. The hardware setup is illustrated in Fig. 17. The
measured and theoretical curves are plotted with dashed and
(26) solid lines, respectively, as shown in Fig. 18. As seen, the theo-
the validity of lumped capacitance.
B. Transformer With Shielding Layer
Inserting shielding layer between the primary and secondary
windings is a commonly used approach to suppress the CM
noise. As shown in Fig. 19, the primary winding AB uses
0.3 mm enameled wire with single strand and covers one layer
(WP ) with 29 turns (NP ); the secondary winding CD uses
0.8 mm enameled wire with single strand and occupies one
layer (WS ) with 11 turns (NS ); the shielding layer Wsh uses a
copper foil with the dimension of 65 mm × 10 mm × 0.1 mm
(1.5 turns with full window height), and grounds to G; the core
uses RM10.
XIE et al.: ENS: EFFECTIVE METHOD FOR ANALYZING CM NOISE IN ISOLATED POWER CONVERTERS
Fig. 18. Comparison between the measured and theoretical results.
Fig. 19. Transformer winding structure.
Fig. 20. Measurement of the structural capacitance between each pair
of transformer windings (a) without core and (b) with core.
TABLE II
M EASURED S TRUCTURAL C APACITANCE
Based on Fig. 19, there are structural capacitances between
the primary winding WP , secondary winding WS , and the
shielding layer WSh . The structural capacitance between WP ,
WS , and WSh are denoted by Cpsh and Cssh , respectively, and
Cps−core represents the parasitic capacitance between WP and
WS via the core. When the core is removed, the capacitance
between WP and WS can be ignored, due to the existence of
shielding layer WSh [13], while Cps−core between WP and
WS is formed with core. From Fig. 20(a), Cpsh and Cssh can
be directly obtained by measuring the capacitance across the
port CG and AG via LCR meter with core removed, while
Cps−core is obtained indirectly: by opening the terminal G,
the capacitance across port AC are measured without and with
core, which are denoted by Cps and Cps+core , respectively.
Therefore, Cps−core is equal to Cps+core − Cps . The measured
results are listed in Table II.
The transformer connection for measurement is shown in
Fig. 21, where the grounding point G of the shielding layer
is connected with B. Based on the linear variation of electric
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2921
Fig. 21. Connection of the transformer with shielding layer.
Fig. 22. Electric potential of the corresponding points on the shielding
layer.
Fig. 23. Theoretical model for calculating transfer function based on the
lumped capacitance model.
potential along the length of transformer windings, combining
with the top view of the shielding layer shown in Fig. 19, the
electric potential of the corresponding points in the shielding
layer can be obtained, as illustrated in Fig. 22.
Referring to the previous discussion, the theoretical model
for calculating the transfer function G2 (s) from vAB to vCD
is acquired, as illustrated in Fig. 23. From the derived circuit,
G2 (s) is given by
NS + 1 sRCssh
G2 (s) =
NP sR (2Cssh + Cps−core + Cprobe ) + 2
sRCps−core
+ . (28)
sR (2Cssh + 2Cps−core + Cprobe ) + 2
The theoretical and measured curves for G2 (s) are depicted
with solid and dashed lines, respectively, as shown in Fig. 24.
Obviously, the curves match well in the frequency range from
150 kHz to 10 MHz, indicating the validity of lumped capaci-
tance model in the low frequency range. In the high frequency
range, due to the limited bandwidth and other parasitic param-
eters of the transformer (the leakage inductance is increased
with inserted shielding layer in this case, the parasitic capac-
itance across the primary winding, etc.), the difference can be
observed.
2922 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 63, NO. 5, MAY 2016

TABLE III
C OMPONENTS OF THE F LYBACK C ONVERTER

Fig. 24. Comparison between the measured and theoretical results.

Fig. 25. Photograph of the prototype. Fig. 27. Winding structure of the transformer.

TABLE IV
W INDING D IMENSION AND M EASURED PARAMETERS OF THE
T RANSFORMER

Fig. 26. Connection of the flyback converter.

C. Verification of the ENS for CM Noise of Flyback

Converter
A flyback converter prototype is built to verify the ENS respectively. Referring to (9) and (12), the calculation formula
for CM noise, as shown in Fig. 25. Fig. 26 gives the connec- of λA , λC , and C0 is given by
tion of the main circuit. The specifications of the converter ⎧  
⎪ 1 2NP − NP1 2NP − 3NP1
are: input voltage vac = 90 ∼ 264 V, nominal output voltage ⎪
⎪ λA = C1 + C2 = 0.573
⎪
⎪ C0 2NP 2NP
Vo = 19.5 V, nominal output power Po = 40 W. The converter ⎨  
is controlled by UC 3843 with 66.5 kHz switching frequency. 1 NS + 0 0 + NS
⎪
⎪ λC = C1 + C2 = 0.5
The components used in the prototype are listed in Table III. A ⎪
⎪ C 0 2N S 2NS
⎪
⎩
0.22 μF X cap is inserted in front of the rectifier bridge in order C0 = C1 + C2 = 51.2 pF.
to filter the high frequency pulsating input current and eliminate (29)
the mixed mode noise [24].
The transformer winding structure is shown in Fig. 27. The conducted EMI of the flyback converter is measured
RM 8 core is employed, and single strand of enabled wire in the electromagnetic shielding chamber. In the test process,
is adopted for these windings. The winding dimension and R&S ENV216 is employed as the LISN, the noise separa-
measured parameters are listed in Table IV. Lmp and Lσp rep- tor adopts Mini-Circuit ZSC-2-2(Common Mode). The EMI
resent the magnetizing inductance and leakage inductance of receiver uses Schaffner SCR3502, and the resolution bandwidth
the primary winding, respectively. The leakage inductance of of the receiver is selected as 9 kHz (6 dB). 220 V input rms volt-
the secondary winding is very small and can be neglected. The age and 40 W load condition is selected as the test condition.
structural capacitance between Wp1 and Ws1 is denoted by C1 , The SG of the converter and the heat sink is connected to PE.
and the capacitance between Wp2 and Ws1 is denoted by C2 , The core is wrapped by copper foil which is connected to PG, in
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XIE et al.: ENS: EFFECTIVE METHOD FOR ANALYZING CM NOISE IN ISOLATED POWER CONVERTERS 2923

Fig. 28. Comparison between the simulated envelope and the mea- Fig. 30. Experimental CM EMI (peak value) results with different diode
sured spectrum of the CM EMI (peak value). position.

Fig. 29. Arrangement of leakage inductance and the lumped capaci-

tance for the transformer.

order to block the electric coupling between the primary wind-

ing and PE via the core. In Fig. 26, the parasitic capacitance
Cp1 (drain-to-PE), Cp2 (from core to the cathode of Do via the
heat sink for Do ), and Cp3 (core-to-SG) are equal to 11, 5.5,
and 14.67 pF, respectively, which is measured by LCR meter at
100 kHz.
Fig. 28 shows the comparison between the simulated enve-
lope (every two adjacent noise peaks are connected with a
straight line) and measured spectrum of the CM EMI (peak
value) from the flyback converter. The snubber circuit, leakage
inductance, and calculated lumped capacitance of the trans-
former and the parasitic capacitance Cp1 , Cp2 , and Cp3 are
included in the simulation. In addition, the arrangement of leak-
age inductance and the lumped capacitance of the transformer
in the simulation are shown in Fig. 29. As can be observed, the
simulated envelope and measured spectrum are almost matched
below 2 MHz, while their difference becomes obvious when the
frequency is higher than 2 MHz.
In addition, the measured CM EMI spectra with different
diode positions are provided in Fig. 30. As can be seen, the
CM noise related with the high side position is several decibels
lower than that related with the low side position. Referring
to the previous analysis, the theoretical difference Δ in this
experiment is given by
 
 (1 − λA − nλC ) C0 + Cp1  regarding the electric potential of the primary winding
Δ = 20 lg   (dB) .
(1 − λA + n (1 − λC )) C0 + Cp1 + nCp2 
(30)
By substituting λA , λC , C0 , Cp1 , Cp2 , and n into (30), Δ is
equal to −2.75 dB. As shown in Fig. 31, by moving up the CM
noise spectra related with the high side situation by 2.75 dB, the
Fig. 31. Comparison of the experimental CM EMI (peak value) results
considering theoretical difference between noise spectra.
measured results are almost overlapped in the low frequency
range from 150 kHz to 1 MHz. At high frequency, the dif-
ference between the measured results can be observed, which
varies with frequency. Therefore, the effectiveness of ENS in
the low frequency range is verified.
VII. C ONCLUSION
This paper has provided a method (ENS) for analyzing CM
noise of isolated power converter. With the help of ENS, the
influence of main circuit configuration on the CM noise can
be systematically analyzed, and the preferred configurations for
basic isolated power converters are obtained. According to the
discussions above, it can be concluded that:
1) The CM noise of isolated power converter is correlated
with the displacement current that flows through the trans-
former interwinding capacitance C0 and the parasitic
capacitance Cp between the primary-side nodes and PE.
2) The displacement current idis that flows through the trans-
former with a general winding structure is equal to the
product of the structural capacitance C0 and the deriva-
tive of the difference between the convex combination
and secondary winding with respect to time.
3) For the simplified CM noise equivalent circuit, the inter-
nal impedance of the circuit is equal to the reactance of
the total capacitance C0 + Cp , and the open-circuit volt-
age of the circuit is expressed by a linear combination
of voltages in the converter, where the coefficients of

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2924 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 63, NO. 5, MAY 2016
these voltages are determined by λA , λC , C0 , Cp , and the
turns ratio n.
4) The preferred configurations for basic isolated power con-
verters are as follows: the flyback converter with its output
rectifier diode at high side position; the forward converter
(with reset circuit) with output rectifier diode and induc-
tor at low side position; conventional configuration of the
push–pull and half-bridge converter.
A flyback converter prototype is built, and the CM noise with
different output rectifier diode position is measured and com-
pared. The experimental results reveal the validity of the ENS
for CM noise.
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Lihong Xie was born in Jiangsu Province,
China, in 1990. He received the B.S. degree
in electrical engineering and automation
from Nanjing University of Aeronautics and
Astronautics (NUAA), Nanjing, China, in 2012,
where he is currently working toward the Ph.D.
degree in electrical engineering.
His research interests include transformer
modeling and conducted EMI of SMPS.
Xinbo Ruan (M’97–SM’02–F’16) received the
B.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineer-
ing from Nanjing University of Aeronautics and
Astronautics (NUAA), Nanjing, China, in 1991
and 1996, respectively.
In 1996, he joined the College of Automation
Engineering, NUAA, where he became a
Professor in 2002. From 2008 to 2011, he was
also with the College of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering, Huazhong University of Science
and Technology, Wuhan, China. He is the author
or coauthor of seven books and more than 200 technical papers
published in journals and conference and proceedings. His research
interests include soft-switching power electronics converters, power
electronics system integration, and renewable energy generation sys-
tems.
Dr. Ruan served as the Vice President of the China Power Supply
Society from 2005 to 2013. Currently, he serves as an Associate
Editor for the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON I NDUSTRIAL E LECTRONICS ,
the IEEE J OURNAL OF E MERGING AND S ELECTED TOPICS IN P OWER
E LECTRONICS, IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON P OWER E LECTRONICS, and
IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON C IRCUITS AND S YSTEMS—II: A NALOG AND
D IGITAL S IGNAL P ROCESSING.
Zhihong Ye (M’00) received the B.S. and M.S.
degrees in electrical engineering from Tsinghua
University, Beijing, China, in 1992 and 1994,
respectively, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical
and computing engineering from Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, VA, USA, in 2000.
From 2000 to 2005, he was with the General
Electric Global Research Center, Niskayuna, NY,
USA, as an Electrical Engineer. From 2005 to
2006, he was with Dell, Round Rock, TX, USA,
as a Commodity Quality Manager. Since 2006, he has been with Lite-On
Technology Corporation, Nanjing, China, as the Director of Research
and Development. He holds 17 U.S. patents, and has authored more
than 30 technical papers published in journals and international confer-
ence and proceedings. His research interests include high-density, high-
efficiency power supplies for computing, communication, and consumer
electronics applications, digital control, power converter topologies and
controls, and soft-switching techniques.