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Pregnancy Lactation Infancy
Pregnancy Lactation Infancy
Pregnancy Lactation Infancy
MIDTERMS
Unit Five. NUTRITION THROUGHOUT THE
LIFESPAN
Chapter 1: Pregnancy
A. Stages
B. Nutritional Problems and Interventions
C. Recommended Diet
Chapter 2: Lactation
A. Common Nutritional Problems
B. Recommended Diet
Chapter 3: Infancy
A. Recommended Diet
B. Factors Affecting Nutritional Status
C. Guidelines in Feeding
D. Nutritional Problems and Intervention
Chapter 4: Toddlers
A. Nutritional Problems and Interventions
B. Guidelines in Feeding
C. Recommended Diet
Chapter 6: Adolescent
A. Nutritional Problems and Interventions
B. Recommended Diet
Chapter 7: Adulthood
A. Nutritional Problems and Interventions
B. Recommended Diet
Chapter 8: Elderly
A. Nutritional Problems and Interventions
B. Recommended Diet
NCM 105: NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
CHAPTER 1: PREGNANCY
A. STAGES
Pregnancy – (Gestation) is a period when the fertilized ovum implants itself in the uterus. Human pregnancy last for the
period of 266 – 180 days (37-40 weeks)
Facts
Good nutrition in pregnancy essential for mother and child
Relationship between mothers’ diet and health of baby at birth
In preparation for a healthy pregnancy, they can establish the following habits:
Achieve and maintain a healthy body weight. Both underweight and overweight are associated with infertility.
Overweight and obese men have low sperm counts and hormonal changes that reduce fertility.
Excess body fat in women disrupts menstrual regularity and ovarian hormone production.
Should a pregnancy occur, mothers, both underweight and overweight, and their newborns, face increased risks of
complications.
Choose an adequate and balanced diet. Malnutrition reduces fertility and impairs the early development of an infant
should a woman become pregnant.
In contrast, a healthy diet that includes a full array of vitamins and minerals can favorably influence fertility.
Men with diets rich in antioxidant nutrients and low in saturated fats have higher sperm numbers and motility.
Be physically active. A woman who wants to be physically active when she is pregnant needs to become physically active
beforehand.
Receive regular medical care. Regular health care visits help ensure a healthy start to pregnancy.
Manage chronic conditions. Conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, HIV/
AIDS, phenylketonuria (PKU), and sexually transmitted diseases can adversely affect a pregnancy and need close medical
attention to help ensure a healthy outcome.
Avoid harmful influences. Both maternal and paternal ingestion of, or exposure to, harmful substances (such as cigarettes,
alcohol, drugs, or environmental contaminants) can cause miscarriage or abnormalities, alter genes or their expression,
and may interfere with fertility.
Metabolic changes
The basal metabolic rate (BMR) rises during pregnancy by as much as 15% to 20% by term.
This increase is caused by the increased oxygen needs of the fetus and the maternal support tissues.
The fetus prefers to use glucose as its primary energy source.
Changes occur in maternal metabolism to accommodate this need of the fetus.
The adaptation allows the mother to use fat as the primary fuel source, thus permitting glucose to be available to the fetus.
NCM 105: NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
Increased macronutrient and micronutrient intake by the mother during pregnancy ensures that these increased metabolic
needs are met.
Physiology of Pregnancy
Pregnancy averages 38 weeks, or 266 days, in length
Commonly, pregnancy duration is given as 40 weeks (280 days) because it is measured from the date of the first day of the
last menstrual period (LMP)
Normal Physiological Changes During Pregnancy
First half : “maternal anabolic” deliver relatively large quantities of blood, oxygen 10% of fetal growth in the first
half of pregnancy
Second half : “maternal catabolic”, which energy and nutrient stores, deliver stored energy and nutrients to the fetus,
fetal growth90% occurs in the second half
↑↑ levels of body water and tissue synthesis -- increased requirements for sodium
Sodium metabolism delicately balance by changes in the kidneys that increase aldosterone secretion and the retention of
sodium
7. The Placenta
Placenta derived from Latin word for cake.
Metabolically active organ
• Requires energy and nutrients
• Produces hormones
Functions of the placenta include:
● Hormone and enzyme production,
● Nutrient and gas exchange between the mother and fetus
● Removal of waste products from the fetus
Prevents passage of red blood cells, bacteria, and large proteins from mother
The Zygote The newly fertilized ovum is called a zygote. It begins as a single cell and rapidly divides to become a
blastocyst. During that first week, the blastocyst floats down into the uterus, where it will embed itself in the inner uterine
wall— a process known as implantation. Cell division continues at an amazing rate as each set of cells divides into many
other cells.
The Embryo At first, the number of cells in the embryo doubles approximately every 24 hours; later the rate slows, and
only one doubling occurs during the final 10 weeks of pregnancy. At 8 weeks, the 1¼inch embryo has a complete central
nervous system, a beating heart, a digestive system, well-defined fingers and toes, and the beginnings of facial features.
The Fetus The fetus continues to grow during the next 7 months. Each organ grows to maturity according to its own
schedule, with greater intensity at some times than at others. Fetal growth is phenomenal: weight increases from less than
an ounce to about 7½ pounds (3500 grams). Most successful pregnancies are full term—defined as births occurring at 39
through 40 weeks—and produce a healthy infant weighing 6½ to 8 pounds.
Critical Periods Times of intense development and rapid cell division are called critical periods—critical in the sense that
those cellular activities can occur only at those times. If cell division and number are limited during a critical period, full
recovery is not possible. Damage during these critical times of pregnancy has permanent consequences for the life and
health of the fetus.
The development of each organ and tissue is most vulnerable to adverse influences (such as nutrient
deficiencies or toxins) during its own critical period.
The neural tube, for example, is the structure that eventually becomes the brain and the spinal cord, and its critical period
of development is from 17 to 3 days of gestation. Consequently, neural tube development is most vulnerable to nutrient
deficiencies,
Nutrient excesses, or toxins during this critical time—when most women do not yet even realize they are pregnant.
Any abnormal development of the neural tube or its failure to close completely can cause a major defect in the central
nervous system.
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Weight Gain
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AREA
Fetus
Stores of Fat & Protein
Blood
Tissue Fluids
Uterus
Amniotic Fluid
Placenta & Cord
Breasts
Affect on body
Increased clumsiness
Backache are the most common.
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Many women complain of leg- and ankle-swelling (edema), but this symptom is actually caused by the extra amount of
blood in your body, not fat.
Recommended Daily Allowance:
“fast” food
1. Single serve fruit bowls
2. Soy milk
3. Tuna fish
4. Raisins
5. Yogurt
6. Easy-to-make trail mix
7. Salad Bar
8. Baby carrots
9. String Cheese
10. Boxed, calcium fortified orange juice
11. Single-serve boxes of cereal
12. Single-serve cottage cheese bowl
Foods to avoid:
1. Ramen Noodles
2. Sodas
3. Pre-packaged lunches (like lunchables)
4. Almost all prepared, frozen meals
5. Iceberg lettuce
Exercise
Strenuous exercise was thought to divert blood to the exercising muscles and thus reduce the blood supply to the fetus.
If a woman chooses to exercise during pregnancy, she must remember to drink fluids before, after, and if necessary, during
exercise and to choose nutritious snacks before and after exercise. Exercises
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Nutrition in Pregnancy:
During the total pregnancy period, the basal metabolic rate increase from 6-14%
Calorie intake is increased – 10-20% increase ( if the woman is overweight it is necessary for her o reduce)
Protein - Increase in nitrogen content of the fetus and its membranes and added protection of the mother against
complications Increase of 9.5 gms./ day
Calcium / Phosphorus / Vit. D – Increase , to calcify the fetal bones & teeth (0.5 – 0.9 of the RDA)
Iron – Increase, 700-1000 mg. of Fe is absorbed during the pregnancy
Iodine – to help the mother and the child prevent goiter in the future and for brain development Folic Acid - women of
childbearing age consume 400 micrograms (0.4 mg) of folic acid each day. Folic acid, a nutrient found in some green,
leafy vegetables, most berries, nuts, beans, citrus fruits, fortified breakfast cereals, and some vitamin supplements can help
reduce the risk of birth defects of the brain and spinal cord (called neural tube defects).
phosphorus, fluoride, calcium, and biotin. There are separate dietary recommendations for adolescents who are pregnant.
DRIs to Meet Needs of Pregnancy and Lactation
Energy
Best estimates energy cost of pregnancy is somewhere between 68,000 kcal and 80,000 kcal. Increase accommodates the
rise in maternal BMR during pregnancy as well as the synthesis and support of the maternal and fetal tissues.
The current recommendation is for woman to consume an extra 300 kcal per day during the 2 nd and 3rd trimesters of
pregnancy.
Extra sandwich and a glass of milk can easily provide the additional 300 kcal per day, providing she was eating well
before pregnancy.
PROTEINS
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for protein during pregnancy is 60 grams per day for adolescent and adult
women.
Pregnant Patients may be counceled to include appropriate sources of protein that provides vit, minerals, and moderate
amounts of fat.
Changes in the daily food guide pyramid during pregnancy and lactation
Vitamin and mineral supplementation
The DRIs are increased during pregnancy for most vitamins A and D.
Micronutrient needs may be met with a balanced diet, with a few notable exceptions including folate and iron.
All supplementation during pregnancy should be in the form of prenatal type multivitamin mineral supplements are
recommended by primary healthcare providers or dieticians.
Folate. Substantial research has demonstrated that folate is important for the prevention of neural tube defects (NTDs)
such as spina bifida and anencephaly, one of the most common congenital malformations in the united states.
Iron. The RDA for iron during pregnancy is 30 mg/day. This level may be difficult to achieve with a normal diet, which
maintains recommended fat and kcaloric guidelines.
Therefore all woman should take a supplement with 30mg ferrous iron daily beginning in the 2 nd trimester to prevent
iron deficiency anemia in pregnancy.
Iron deficiency anemia
✓ one of the most common complications of pregnancy.
✓ Can mean impaired oxygen delivery to the fetus, which may have severe consequences.
In addition, during the last trimester, the fetus stores iron in its liver to use during the 1 st 4months of life.
Pica
✓ Characterized by a hunger and appetite for non-food substances including ice, corn starch, clay, and even dirt.
✓ These substances contain no iron and may lead to loss of additional minerals, particularly when clay and dirt are
consumed.
✓ Intestinal blockages caused by consumption of these substances may be life-threatening. Calcium. The Adequate
Intake (AI) for calcium is 1000 mg/day for women and 1300 mg/day for adolescents, neither of which is an
increase over the non-pregnant state.
Although calcium needs are great during pregnancy, particularly for mineralization of the fetal skeleton, changes
occur in maternal calcium homeostasis, which results in an increase in intestinal calcium absorption.
Nutrition-related concerns
A number of non-nutritive substances that women may be exposed to during pregnancy may have the capability to act as
teratogens.
Teratogen an agent capable of producing a malformation or a defect in the unborn fetus. Some anomalies are
apparent at birth or shortly after, such as NTDs or a cleft lip or palate.
Cleft lip or palate
Other defects such as delayed growth or learning deficits may not be noticeable for several months or even years.
Potential teratogens include caffeine, drugs, alcohol, and tobacco.
Other concerns affecting the course and outcome of pregnancy include strenuous exercise, maternal age, and medical
conditions requiring nutrition intervention such as hypertension, diabetes, phenylketonuria, and human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) infection.
Hyperemesis gravidarum:
Occurs when nausea becomes so severe that it is life-threatening
May require hospitalization and parenteral nutrition
Constipation
Constipation and hemorrhoids can occur during pregnancy.
Suggestions:
Eat high-fiber diet
Participate in daily exercise
Drink at least 8 glasses of water per day
Respond promptly to urge to defecate
Heartburn
Can result from pressure on stomach by growing fetus and relaxation of cardiac sphincter and smooth muscles related to
progesterone.
Suggestions:
Eat small, frequent meals
Avoid spicy or greasy foods
Avoid liquids at mealtime
Wait at least one hour after eating to lie down and two hours before exercising
Suggestions:
Drink fat-free milk
Eat clean, crisp, raw vegetables as snack
Eat fruits and custards made with fat-free milk as desserts Broil, bake, or
boil instead of fry
Pregnancy-Induced Hypertension
Formerly known as pre-eclampsia or toxemia
Characterized by high blood pressure, presence of protein in urine, and edema in third trimester
May progress into eclamptic stage with convulsions, coma, and possible death of mother and infant
Pregnancy-Induced Hypertension
Higher incidence with first pregnancy, multifetal pregnancies, morbidly obese women, or women with inadequate diets
Especially protein-deficient
More frequent in pregnant adolescents
Pica
Craving for nonfood substances
E.g., starch, clay (soil), or ice
Discourage ingestion of soil due to possible contamination and nutrient deficiencies
Caffeine
Whether a woman should refrain from caffeine consumption during pregnancy has been a matter of debate.
Caffeine (1-, 3-, 7-trimethyxanthine) may alter deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and, in some individuals, may alter
circulating levels of neurotransmitters and increase blood pressure.
However there is now enough evidence stating that caffeine is not a human teratogen, and even at modest doses (<300
mg/day or about 2 cups or less of coffee, there is no increased risk of spontaneous abortion or preterm labor.
Causes birth defects in rats, but no data exist for humans
Limit intake to < 300 mg per day
Drugs
Effect of prescription or self-prescribed drugs varies but includes possible damage to fetus
Vitamin A and its derivatives can cause fetal malformations and spontaneous abortions
A pregnant woman should not consume any cover-the-counter or prescription medications unless prescribed by her
primary healthcare provider.
Although not a direct nutrient concern, the acne medication isotretinoin (Accutane) contains high levels of retinoic acid in
the form of a vit A analogue.
Illegal drugs can cause infant to be born addicted or born with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
Tobacco
Women who smoke during pregnancy are at greater risk for several adverse outcomes including the following:
prematurity, low birth weight, SGA, stillbirth, placenta previa (location in lower uterine area), placentae abruptio
(separation from uterine wall), and postnatally, sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).
Smoking during pregnancy may cause prolonged effects of impaired intellectual performance and decreased attention span
in the offspring.
Smoking associated with low birth weights, sudden infant death syndrome, fetal death, spontaneous abortions, and
complications at birth
Maternal age
Adolescents and women older than 35 years of age are at higher risk for poor pregnancy outcome. Women who become
pregnant after the age of 35 yrs have distinct nutritional needs, reflecting their longer medical history, potential long-term
use of oral contraceptives (which may affect folate levels) and the possibility of a longer history of poor eating habits.
Multiple Pregnancy
Recommendation of Nutrition During Multiple Pregnancy
Anemia in pregnancy
Hb concentration <11 g/dL
-Increased maternal morbidity & mortality
-Increased fetal morbidity & mortality -
Increased risk of low birth weight Therapy :
Adequate intake of daily nutrition (heme-iron)
Iron supplement → 3x/daily (ferrous sulphate @300 mg→ metal element tablet @65 mg ), 2-3 months
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(+/- 90 tablets)
Gestational diabetes
Occurs during pregnancy and disappears after birth
Routine screening part of prenatal care
Between 16 and 28 weeks
Insulin often used during pregnancy to control any type of diabetes
Nutrient requirements of pregnant woman with diabetes same as non-diabetic pregnant woman
Diet plan depends on type and number of insulin injections required
Artificial sweeteners found to be safe during pregnancy
Diabetes mellitus
Women with pre existing diabetes mellitus (DM) (type 1 and type 2 DM) requires specialized care during pregnancy.
Other complications include fetal macrosomia, dystocia, operative delivery, neonatal hypoglycemia and neonatal
respiratory distress syndrome.
Major defects;
Cardiac defects
Nervous system defects including NTDs Kidney
malformations,
And skeletal anomalies.
These infants may experience hypoglycemia after birth.
The maternal source of glucose is no longer available, and because glucose readily crosses the placenta, levels of glucose
in utero tend to be high, especially if the diabetes has been poorly controlled.
Current recommendation for women to achieve tight glucose control before conception ✓ Maximize the
likelihood of a healthy mother and infant, while avoiding perinatal risks.
✓ Control includes prudent blood glucose monitoring, adherence to diet, moderate exercise, and strict adherence to
the prescribed insulin regimen.
✓ Total energy intake and energy distribution will likely need modification during pregnancy because of the
increased energy needs of pregnancy.
✓ Insulin dosages will require adjustment because many of the hormones of pregnancy, such as estrogen,
progesterone, human chorionic, somatotropin, and maternal cortisol, act in an antagonistic fashion with insulin.
CHAPTER 2: LACTATION
LACTATION PHYSIOLOGY
Mammary Gland
The functional units : alveoli
Each alveolus is composed of a cluster of cells (secretory cells) with a duct in the center Each smaller duct
leading to six to ten larger collecting ducts.
Myoepithelial cells surround the secretory cells can contract under the influence of oxytocin and cause milk to be ejected
into the ducts.
During puberty, the cyclic release of estrogen and progesterone governs pubertal breast development and usually complete
within 12 to 18 months after menarche.
Estrogen : stimulates development of the glands
Progesterone : elongate tubules and duplicate the cells that line the tubules (epithelial cells) Lactogenesis
Lactogenesis I, begins during the last trimester of pregnancy untill first day postpartum, milk begins to form, lactose and
protein content of milk increase
Lactogenesis II : 2–5 days postpartum, increased blood flow to the mammary gland
Lactogenesis III. This stage of breast milk production begins about 10 days after birth, the milk composition becomes
NCM 105: NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
stable.
Hormonal Control of Lactation
Prolactin and oxytocin are necessary for establishing and maintaining a milk supply.
Prolactin : stimulates milk production, stimulates by suckling, stress, sleep, and sexual intercourse In the last 3 months
of pregnancy, prolactin activity is suppressed by a prolactin-inhibiting factor that is released by the hypothalamus
Hormonal control lactation cont..
Oxytocin : main role is in letdown, or the ejection of milk from the milk gland (acinus) into the milk ducts.
Stimulated by suckling or nipple stimulation
Oxytocin also acts on the uterus, causing it to contract, seal blood vessels, and shrink its size.
Physiology of Lactation
Suckling stimulates nipple
--->pituitary gland secretes oxytocin--->let down reflex results in milk ejecting cells contract forcing milk from milk cells
into milk ducts.
Milk pools in lactiferous sinuses under the areola. Suckling stimulates milk to come from the nipple.
Lactation
Production and secretion of breast milk for purpose of nourishing infant
Supply and demand mechanism
No supplemental feedings should be given until feeding routine established
Human milk formulated to meet nutrient needs of infants for first six months of life
1)Diet – intake of meat & veg. soup (tahong, tulya, malunggay) “galactogue”
• Stimulate milk secretion
• Water should not be drunk beyond the level of natural thirst. It suppresses milk secretion
2. Nutritional State of Mother – Malnutrition and illnesses (cardiac and kidney diseases, anemia, beriberi, tuberculosis)
can lessen the quantity and quality of milk
• Emotional & Physical State – relax, pleasant surroundings, lots of rest and good sleep
• Suckling - suckling right after delivery stimulate milk secretion
• Contraceptives & Drugs – depress milk flow
11. Safe
12. Emotional satisfaction between mother & child
Tips of Breastfeeding:
1. With a clean washcloth or cotton swabs, wipe your breasts clean before your baby feeds.
2.Sit comfortably in an upright position.
3.Support your baby's head
4.Guide your nipple towards his mouth. Baby's chin should be against the breast and his tongue underneath your nipple.
Make sure that he's sucking the whole areola (darkened area of the nipple). 5.When he's sucking subsides, switch him to
other breast until stops feeding
6.Next time he feeds, start from the breast he nursed from last.
7.If your nipples get sore,never wash your nipples with soap, give a minute for them to be exposed for air dry
8.ALWAYS burp your baby after feeding.
Anti-inflammatory components
Enzymes: catalase, histaminase, lysozymes, lactoperoxidase
Prostoglandins
Interleukin-6
Stimulates an increase in mononuclear cells in breast milk.
Breastfeeding
Advantages for Baby
Decreased incidence and/or severity of otitis media, diarrhea, lower respiratory infections, bacteremia, bacterial
meningitis, botulism, urinary tract infections, and necrotizing enterocolitis.
Less hospitalization in first 6 months.
Possible protective effect against sudden infant death syndrome, type 1 diabetes, Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis,
lymphoma, allergies, and chronic digestive diseases.
CHAPTER 3: INFANCY
Breastfeeding Techniques
Physiology
Supply and demand
Oxytocin stimulates let-down reflex
Position baby
Baby’s body facing mom
Nose at breast with body in alignment
Latching on
Stimulate wide open mouth
Take in entire nipple with areola at gums
Prevent sore nipples
Feeding
Hear swallowing, see milk at mouth
Empty each breast
Break suction
Alternate breast and change baby’s position
Warm stored milk with warm water
Avoid supplemental feedings
Avoid pacifiers/different nipples
Elimination
6-8 wet diapers and several stools per day
Breast Milk
Recommended for first 6 to 12 months
Immunologic
Inhibit growth of bacteria and viruses
Decreases incidences of allergies
Nutritional
Facilitates digestion and absorption
Composition varies with gestational age
Iron better absorbed and adequate until 6 mos Lower renal solute
level
Psychosocial
Maternal/infant bonding
Less expensive than formula
Pumping when mother is not available
Breast Feeding
Advantages to Infants
It's usually more easily digested than formula. So breastfed babies are often less constipated and gassy.
It may raise your child's intelligence. Studies show breastfed babies have higher levels of cognitive function.
Decreased incidence of ear infections, otitis media, UTI, gastroenteritis, diarrhea, and lower respiratory tract infections /
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Advantages of Breast-Feeding
Infant benefits
Provides immunologic properties from the woman
Decreases the risk in overfeeding of the newborn
Possibly protects against certain conditions or diseases such as SIDS, insulin-dependent diabetes, and allergic
diseases
Breastfeeding
Infants obtain temporary immunity to many infectious diseases Have fewer
infections
Has benefit of being the following:
Economical
Nutritionally perfect
Sterile
Easily digested
Breast Feeding
Advantages to Mothers
May delay return of ovulation.
Cost effective
Suppresses post-partum bleeding.
Reduced risk of breast cancer, diabetes, heart disease, osteoporosis, and ovarian cancer.
More rapid uterine involution
Less bleeding in the postpartum period
A quicker return to pre-pregnancy weight level
Contraindications to Breast-Feeding
Illegal drug use
Active untreated TB
HIV infection
Chemotherapy treatment
Herpetic lesions on the breast
Insufficient production of breast milk
Galactosemia or phenylketonuria in the infant
Bottle Feeding
Synthetic formula made from soybeans may be used for infants who are sensitive or allergic
Formula must be prepared with correct amount of water to prevent health complications
Infant should be cuddled and held in semi-upright position
Infant should be burped often
Formulas made from modified cow’s milk to resemble breast milk in nutritional value Cow’s milk
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Composition of Standard
Infant Formula
Caloric density: standard formulas contain 20
calories/oz (0.67 calories/cc).
Protein content: ratio of whey to casein varies- most are 60:40
similar to human milk.
Fat: most provide ~50% of calories from fat from saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Carbohydrate: lactose, beneficial effect on mineral absorption (Ca, Zn, Mg), and on colonic flora. Micronutrients: Higher
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Special Formulas
Soy: used for vegetarians, lactase deficiency, galactosemia.
Lactose free: cow’s milk-based formula.
Protein hydrolysate: infants who can not digest or are allergic to intact protein.
Free amino acids.
Pre-term infant: unique for premies, predominant whey protein, cow’s milk based, higher protein and calcium, 20-50%
MCT.
Pre-term follow up
Bottle feeding
Hold baby for all feedings Head
elevated
Formula/milk in nipple
Newborn: 1-3 oz every 3-4 hrs
Birth to 2 mos: 2-4 oz at 6-8 a day
Bottle feeding
Desired Outcomes for the Infant and the Role of the Family in the Feeding Relationship
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Supplementary Foods
Wait until 4 to 6 months before introducing solid foods
Do so gradually
Solids should be started with iron-fortified rice cereal
Then other infant cereals
Follow with cooked and pureed vegetables, then cooked and pureed fruits, egg yolk, and finely ground meats
Between 6 and 12 months, add toast, Zwieback teething biscuits, and Cheerios
Supplementary Foods
Never give honey to infant
Could be contaminated with Clostridium botulinum bacteria
Can introduce juice when drinking from cup
Never give from bottle
Will fill up on juice and not get enough calories from other sources
Use only 100 percent juice products
Limit to 4 ounces per day
Nutrient-dense
Indications for Readiness for Solid Foods
Disappearance of extrusion reflex
Pushing food out with tongue
Willingness to participate
Ability to sit up without support
Control of head and neck
Drinking of more than 32 ounces of formula or nursing eight to 10 times in 24 hours
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Premature Infants
Infant born before 37 weeks of gestation
Sucking reflex not developed until 34 weeks of gestation
Infants born earlier require total parenteral nutrition, tube feedings, or bolus feedings Other concerns:
Low birth weight, underdeveloped lungs, immature gastrointestinal tract, inadequate bone mineralization, and
lack of fat reserves
Many special formulas available, but breast milk best
Composition perfect even for premature infants
Cystic Fibrosis
Inherited disease in which body secretes abnormally thick mucus Decreased production of
digestive enzymes and malabsorption of fat Recommendation:
35 to 40 percent of diet should be from fat
Digestive enzymes and fat-soluble vitamin supplementation at meal times
Nighttime tube feedings may be indicated
Failure to Thrive
Determined by plotting infant’s growth on standardized charts
May be caused by watering down formula, congenital abnormalities, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), lack
of bonding, child abuse, or neglect
Failure to Thrive
First six months most crucial for brain development
Galactosemia
Caused by lack of transferase
Converts galactose to glucose
Amount of galactose in blood becomes toxic
Results in diarrhea, vomiting, edema, and abnormal liver function
Cataracts may develop
Galactosuria and mental retardation occur
Galactosemia Diet
therapy:
Exclusion of anything containing milk from any mammal
Nutritional supplements of calcium, vitamin D, and riboflavin Lifelong
elimination or restriction of lactose in diet may be needed
PKU (Phenylketonuria)
Infants lack liver enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase
Necessary for metabolism of amino acid phenylalanine
Infants normal at birth, but if untreated, become hyperactive, suffer seizures, and become mentally retarded between 6
and 18 months Lifelong diet therapy:
Commercial formula Lofenalac
Regular blood tests
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Note: goat’s milk has also been found effective as hypoallergenic milk
Conclusion
Infants must have adequate diets to avoid impairment of physical and mental development Breastfeeding
Nature’s way of feeding infant
Formula feeding also acceptable
Some infants have special nutritional needs